Factors in American Democracy

Factors in American DemocracyAmerican DemocracyThe seven appoint functions of busy groups.The interest groups be organizations that whitethorn be formed in re sue to certain issues either as a single event or threat that may later become institutionalized. They are private organizations that endeavor to influence public officials to respond the shared aspirations of their members without holding to semi policy-making power. They stimulate interest in public affairs through members representation based on a criterion of shared beliefs rather than by geography. Interest groups provide expedient data to governments and are a means through which political participation is attained hence they act as a check and balance. This is a native role that manifest itself in politics, education, business etc. These Interest groups may be for profit while others are for non profit. One function of interest groups is to gather up representation that may be political.They seek out memberships as more members more power hence attaining a position where election outcome is influenced. thus securing money for its cause is central and advantageous in order for it to sustain itself and be effective at lobbying and influence government indemnity. They puddle the responsibility of bed cover information to the general public because they pose information that either the public or the policymakers may lack. This helps it to gain more followers and influence policy makers to happen upon certain favorable actions. They throw off an inbuilt mechanism to change policy both in both private and public spheres. Interest groups do prepare both their own constituents and the public and by this members are educated on the most recent developments on the issues at hand. With their developed expertise on a particular field or policy area they are normally called to testify before congress on their position concerning legislation (Aldrich, 1995).The two-party strategy today is it in d ownfall or in resurgence?Over the last three decades pundits have claimed that the American political parties are on the decline in the US politics. Their role has been reducing in the political subroutine and it has been inferred that they are non a useful tool any more. The political action committee (PACs) has supplemented the political parties rendering them to be outdated. The view is reinforced with the idea that candidates are independent of political parties to get elected rendering the parties to be slight significant. Parties do not make significant and purposeful stand on issues only are concerned with accommodating followers form the middle of the ideologic spectrum rendering them irrelevant to progression of society. The party leaders do not make important decisions on presidential candidate as a topic of party primaries and committees.The role of the party in educating and influencing the electorate has been overtaken by the mass electronic media. Democratic Par ty reformed the delegate selection process trough the 1968 radiation pattern that led to increase usage of the primaries leading to an increased youth, women and minorities representation. These reforms in the Democratic Party have made it to be reflective to the view of academicians and intellectuals at the write off of the working masses, unionist, elected officials etc who have the numbers. A large number of citizens are distrustful to the major parties viewing them as corrupt institutions that circumvent the issues at hand, have no ideas and follow public opinions rather than generate them. Nevertheless political parties still do play a crucial role in American politics (Reichley, 2000). The parties are transforming but not declining despite the political environment being more candidates centered than before. Today parties are better funded with permanent headquarters.They are more capable to providing assistance to states and local party organizations due to the strengthened financial base. They have defined themselves as providers of expertise to the needy but they cannot themselves take in it. They have shown unity during roll call votes in congress and after the 1968 convection the Democratic Party replaced the unit rule with system of proportionality. The Republican Party has habituated the national committees more control over presidential campaigns and urged state parties to encourage broader participation of all groups. Today both parties do provide training sessions for candidates on campaign planning, marketing, fund raising, volunteers and campaign scheduling. The two major political parties have demonstrated adaptability to change with time and respond to constitutes demand despite the cultural and geomorphologic forces that perpetuate the two party system showing little signs of relenting.The three types of third parties.The US electoral system works against a proliferation of political parties but minor parties and independents have stil l managed to run for office. Third parties are created for various reasons a split within the republican and democratic parties oftentimes represents factions over policy issues. These splinter parties have been at the forefront in gaining popularity and the electorate college (Aldrich, 1995). Ideologically related parties and issue advocacy parties do cover both ends of the political continuum. These political parties are formed around single issues e.g. green energy. Voters normally vote for third parties because they are trying to send a message to the two big parties often with success. Both the two major parties have embraced reforms and programs that were often rejected when presented by third parties.Third parties in the long run do fail to conserve themselves at local and state levels due to skimming of their talent by the major parties. There members are always small to have any hector influence plus lacking the financial resources to carry out effective campaigns. The t wo major parties consolidate their dominance of the political system through mellowed profile campaigns and conventions subsidized by tax payers money. Nevertheless they have been successful at calling for attention to an otherwise ignored, misrepresented or surprised issues. They have over the years managed to get the major political parties to adopt the most important portion of third party platforms as theirs grownup the far sighted voter a means of making tangible statements with greater impact on the direction of the country. They work to enhance the prospects and credibility of lesser know ideas and lesser known candidates to gain and solidify ballot access. There activity provides whoever wins office with a more latitude and public support in choosing new public policy approaches or solutions to existing or future problems or concerns (Schaffner, 2012).Elements of referendums, initiatives, and recalls.Many countries that are representatives democracies permit three forms o f political action providing limited direct democracy. These are initiative, referendum and recall. An initiative is a means by which a petition signed by a certain tokenish number of registered voters can force a public vote on a proposed law, amendments or ordinance. It cedes citizens to bypass their state legislature through placing proposed statutes or organic amendments on the ballot. In America twenty four states have adopted the initiative proceeds in their constitutions. Two types of initiatives exist. Direct initiatives are submitted to the legislature which may act on the proposal. This depends on the state hence the question may go to the ballot and if rejected a different proposal is submitted. For verificatory process the legislature submits a competing measure that appears on the ballot together with the original proposal examples states of Nevada, Ohio and Massachusetts. In Utah and Washington proponents either chooses the direct or indirect method (Schaffner, 2012 ).A referendum is a direct method of voting where an entire electorate is asked to either accept or reject an article proposal. This may lead to check of a new constitution, amendment, law or recall of an elected official. Legislative referendum is where the legislature refers a measure to the voters for approval. Popular referendum is a measure that appears on the ballot as a result of a voter petition. Legislative referendums are less controversial than citizen initiatives with high success rates. Popular referendum is a means that allow voters to approved or repeal an act of the legislature. Law passed that citizens do not approved for may lead to gathering of signatures to demand a popular vote. consultive referendum is where the legislature and in some states the governor places a question on the ballot to asses voter opinion where the results are not binding. A recall is a procedure where voters remove an elected official from office through a direct vote when sufficient vote rs sign a petition. It allows citizens to remove from office a public official before the expiry of the term. Recall is apolitical device different from impeachment that is a legal device (Aldrich, 1995).Media BiasProfessional who constitute Americas mainstream intelligence media are mainly left oriented and democrats. They make it clear that they are giving their opinions and analysis of the news as they perceive it rather than being frank and focus on research so as to represent relevant facts to the audience. A more useful way of measuring the news media political and ideological makeup is to examine what the professional in the industry believe about a wide array of social, ethical amend political issues. Bias manifests itself not in the form of outright lies but as a function of what reporters choose not to tell their audience. They omit factors so as to avoid contradicting the political narrative they wish to propagate.Some mangers in American newsrooms are so ideologically entrenched that there is a feeling and discussion that some of them have a difficult time reviewing a story that reflects negatively upon government or the administration. Politicians are a biased lot and they belong to political parties that sense policies and ideologies. Irrespective of their thought these ideologies are common since they do perceive their political conversations as politics. Journalist do also speak form a political position but the industry ethics and the objective of candour do influence there profession that endeavors to do the right thing. This objective is met through fairness to those concerned with the news covered, completeness and accuracy. The American press is a unified voice with a distinct bias that generates a simplistic thinking that fits the needs of an ideological struggle. American media bias is as a result of journalist failure to reflect upon the meaning of the premise and assumptions that supports their practice because the mass media wante d to apply a narrative structure to ambiguous events in order to create a coherent and casual sense of events (Reichley, 2000).WORKS CITEDAldrich, J. H. (1995). Why parties? The origin and transformation of political parties in America. Chicago u.a. Univ. of Chicago Press.Reichley, A. J. (2000). The life of the parties A history of American political parties. Lanham, Md u.a. Rowman Littlefield.Schaffner, B. F. (2012). Politics, parties, and elections in America. Boston, MA Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Slow Learners In Malaysia Education Essay

soggy Learners In Malaysia training EssayAbstract- Current trend indicate that learning through the use of application and coursew be had twist important article of faith system. However, it is different case for shadowy learners. As most schools loosen uplyly adapting the more effective teaching method, they can non keep up with the flow. Even though thither ar coursew atomic number 18 highly-developed for the slow learners, the coursew are is far from fulfilling their specific bespeaks. Statistic shows that in a US typical classroom in that respect forget be 3 or 4 slow learners. In orbital cavitys of poverty and many low-income urban areas, the children per classroom who could be characterized as slow learners might be twice that number. The distinction of the slow learners are often described as immature in relations, find it difficult to solve complex problem, work very slowly, can substanti wholey lose track of time, unable to perform long-term goals, and have p oor concentration skills. However, they are very good with hands-on materials. This paper pull up stakes designate the tuition of courseware made to teach slope for the slow learners.Keywords-component courseware slow learners EnglishIntroductionBackgroundSlow learners are no longer rare cases in Malaysia. However, they are non categorized as people with special c each for. Some might confuse the slow learners with dyslexia. However, both terms are different. Dyslexic get out have difficulties in learning to read and write despite having kindred learning process and effort with another(prenominal)s. For slow learners, they do not do comfortably at schools or projection that require extensive adaptation, writing, and mathematic but they perform great outside class especially in hands-on tasks. They depart need extra time in completing the tasks given. Because of their characteristics, slow learners are al meanss left behind as they cannot catch up with the learning pro cess at peace(p) through by other kids. Even though new technology has been developed to enhance learning process, they are left out because it is not meet for their learning needs.This project is intend to enhance the English courseware specifically for the slow learners in way that leave behind serve their learning needs which is different from other kids. The courseware leave be focus on non-linear techniques to achieve it flexible and more conducive for the slow learners.As there is not more than of courseware developed for slow learners, the product of the project allow world-shakingly bring the learning process for the slow learners into new level and brighten the hope for them to learn like frequent kids.Problem StatementTeaching slow learners isnt self aforementioned(prenominal)(prenominal) like teaching normal kids. Teaching them require different methods and approaches because of their characteristics. As learning process mournful on taking advantage of computer s and internet, slow learners are left behind because there are no specific learning applications for them that will suit their needs especially in critical subjects such as Science and Mathematic. There are lots of courseware in the market out there but it is similarly little in poesy and it is far from perfect. This new courseware to be developed will be a great to a faultl for teacher to teach English to the slow learners because it will enhance whats al machinate in the courseware and make it better.Objectives and Scope of StudiesObjectivesThe objective of this project is to enhance the authoritative English courseware from Mohd Izzat Helmi Bin Yahyas English Courseware for Slow Learners project and will be specifically designed for the slow learners so that the learning process will suit their needs. Because of their characteristics, the courseware will need careful designation.. The courseware will enrich English learning process which already in the current courseware and make it more interactive and flexible.Scope of StudiesThe project will admit the strike of slow learner behavior and courseware development. The ending of the study then will be analyzed to develop and enhancing cognitive skills training that will be corporate with the courseware so that the target to teach slow learners can be achieved. Target group of the courseware will be primary school learner in tired 4 to warning 6 (10-12 yrs old). The courseware will be developed as a game to teach General English.Literature ReviewGame-Based nurtureMarc Prensky (2003) says that since Pong is introduced in 1974, the unique expertise that game designers have honed to a superfine edge is player engagement the ability to keep people in their seats for hour after hour, day after day, at rapt attention, actively trying to reach new goals, shouting with glee at their successes, placed to overcome their failures, all the while begging for more. Along with the new technology that had been developed in recent years, games had make up more than just entertainment, it had evolve to become the medium of learning. In Digital Game-Based Learning (Prensky, 2001), explain that children nowadays are different from previous generation where they grow up with digital technology and their minds are changing to accommodate the technologies with which they spend more time. From there, it is clear that most children nowadays from different gender, ages and social groups spends most of the time with video games. Many experts see the determine in video games as a medium of learning. Its true that this children love games more than schools but their attitudes toward games is the attitude of the learners passionate, cooperative, and actively involve in problem-solving. enquiry by Zyda (2007) argue that computer games are an engaging medium for learning, since games can stimulate cognitive processes such as reading explicit and implicit knowledge, deductive and inducive priminging, problem-solving, and making inferences from information displayed across a number of screensTo define game based learning will be quite complicated because there are several different opinion on the matter. Kirjavainen(2009) define game-based learning as field of research and game design based on observations that play, structured or unstructured, conditions the human brain for transformation and learning. Wee Hoe Tan(2008) defines game-based learning as form of learner-centered learning that uses electronic games for educational purposes. However, the concept of game-based learning is still the same the use of game with the defined learning outcomes for the purpose of learning.Kasvi (2000) lists the seven requirements for effective learning environment asProvide a high intensity of interaction and feedbackHave specific goals and established proceduresBe motivationalProvide a continual feeling of challenge, not to a fault difficult to be frustrating nor too easy to create boredomP rovide a sense of direct engagement on the task involvedProvide the appropriate tools that fit the task andAvoid distractions and disruptions that destroy the subjective experience.Kasvi (2000) suggests that computer games fulfill all of these requirements and believes that they satisfy them better than most other learning mediums. By looking at how the westbound world had utilized game as learning faculty in classroom, it proves that the statement is true. R.V. Eck(2006) explain that games like Civilization, SimCity 4, Cruise Ship Tycoon, and Roller Coaster Tycoon had already been utilize in classroom. People might be skeptical at first glance. All these games have prove them wrong. For example, in Roller Coaster Tycoon students piss roller-coasters to different specifications, which is what engineers should do. By extending the gameplay with basal learning process like calculus physic knowledge, it will make a valuable learning experience.Slow Learners in MalaysiaIn Malaysia, dyslexic children had begin to receive attention when MyLexics, a courseware to help the dyslexic learn basic Malay language is introduced (Haziq, 2009). However, its a different chronicle for the slow learners. In fact, there are cases reported where slow learners are left behind in the classes (NST, 2008). Cases like this shouldnt happen because even though they are weak in study they are definitely very good in other aspects.Even worse, One in every three juvenile person delinquent in integrity school in prison or detention centers displays learning difficulties including being slow learners. (The Star, 2008) Many believe that if these youth not identified and helped will cause them to end up as criminals. Most of them tend to drop out of schools and vulnerable to negative influence because of the problem they facing.Overcoming the WeaknessesResearch by LearningRX(2006) argue that weak cognitive skills are the cause of learning disabilities such as dyslexia and slow learning. Important skills such as concentration, perception, memories and logical intellection are not as good as other normal people which make reading, writing, and thinking more difficult. However, this weakness can be change through specific training and testing. Mel Levine (2008) explain that how Kitty Hawk Elementary School in North Carolina America had implied School Attuned Program victimisation the Neurodevelopmental Profiles where all students with different cognitive skills can learn. Lisa Galleli, a teacher at Kitty Hawk describes her management plan for one such students as He had significant graphomotor weaknesses with spelling and writing. But he really shined in his social skills and that made all the difference in the world. He was similarly good at math and problem solving. We use his strength who keep him motivated with success while tackling his writing problem. The result had proved that it is not impossible to overcome the weakness.Neurodevelopmental Profile is rese arched and synthesized by Mel Levine and his colleagues consist of 8 constructs that areTable 1 8 constructs of Neurodevelopmental ProfilesAttentionThis includes the ability to concentrate, focus on one thing rather than another, finish tasks, and dominate what one says and doesTemporal-sequential orderingWhether its being able to recite the alphabet or pushing a response acquittance on Jeopardy, being able to find out the time and sequence of pieces of information is a key component of learning.Spatial orderingThe ability, for instance to distinguish between a circle and square or to use images to remember related informationMemoryEven if people are able to at a lower placestand, organize, and interpret complex information at the moment, their inability to ancestry and later recall can dramatically affect their performance.LanguageDeveloping language functions involves elaborate interaction between various separate of the brain that cook such abilities as pronouncing words, u nderstanding different sounds and comprehending written symbolsNeuromotor functionsThe brains ability to coordinate motor or muscle function is key to many area of learning, including writing and keyboarding.Social cognitionOne of the most overlooked components of learning is the ability to succeed in social relationship with peer pressure.Higher-order cognitionThis involve the ability to understand and implement the steps necessary to solve problems, attack new areas of learning and think creatively.By realizing that every human have closely strong functions and near weak ones, Mel Levine found that it is possible to describe each individuals unique mix of strength and weaknesses.Using the right method in development the courseware and the right approach for the slow learners, it is not impossible that this courseware will be definitely help them.Formative VS Summative EvaluationIn order to advance data for the enhancement of the courseware, an assessment need to be make. The re are two methods to be used fictile military rating and summative evaluation.According to H.L Roberts(2009), fictile evaluations alike known as developmental or implementation evaluation assess what works and what does not work most a particular act or project as it is happening. It is used to assess the value of a project as it is taking place to determine how it can be improved. The method use in formative evaluation is the same like other assessment which include survey, interview or data collection. This type of evaluation relies on qualitative data that is how participants felt about the process as well as quantitative data, such as charts or test scores. Formative evaluation typically involves a small group of users and participants in the project being evaluated. Participants in formative evaluations look not just at the goals of the process and whether those goals are achieved but also at the process itself and where that process is a successful one or not. Even thoug h this type of assessment is quite complex, there are benefit in it. It allow early identification of potential problem in the subject of assessment. Moreover, it can be a good way of gauge the user perception on the subject because it rely on user feedback.As for summative evaluation, Fox Valley Technical College(2007) describe it as process that concerns final evaluation to ask if the project or program met its goals. It is cumulative in nature. It concentrates on learner outcomes rather than only the program of education where the aim is to determine the users mastery and understanding of information, concept, skill or process. Ongoing summative assessment represents important tools for monitoring the progress across time. There are various method of summative assessment such as demonstration, licensing, internship, portfolio or clinical. Summative evaluation is typically quantitative, using numeric scores or letter grades to assess learner achievement. In a sense, it lets the l earner know how they did and how good they are However, theres more to it. By looking at how the learners did, it helps to know whether the product teaches what it is supposititious to teach and how efficient it is.Here the courseware will be using formative evaluation method. By using formative evaluation, the current English courseware functionality can be assessed to find out whether its working to perfectly or not.. Even if the courseware is working properly, it wont fulfill its objectives if the user (in this case student) dont like it or having problem in using it. By using formative evaluation method, user feedback can be recorded and area of improvement can be found. In conclusion, formative evaluation method will assess the courseware from two perspectives the courseware functionality and user feedback. Both will greatly help in the enhancement process of the current courseware. methodologyThrow-Away PrototypingThe methodology chosen for the project would be Throw-Away Pro totyping. Dummy prototype, which is presentational only will be developed. Thorough analysis will be done to begin with first tit prototype is developed to ensure the prototype have enough details representing real working system. From there, the dummy prototype will be shown and tested with the user to get feedback and identify additional requirement. The next prototype will be developed until it really visualize real working system. When it is ready and all acts are resolved, it will be implemented as fully-functional system.Figure 1 Throw-Away PrototypingPlanningThe planning phase is the crucial one in exploitation the project. First thing to be considered is how the project will be developed. For that, the Gantt Chart for the project is build so that each project milestone during the one year of the project can be tracked. Other than that, research is made to find suitable tool to be used for the development of the project. As the project intend to enhance the current cours eware, research also made to identify suitable test subject to try the current courseware.Initial abridgmentDuring this phase, the test scenario is developed and interview as well as questionnaire is build to get data from the target school. Data is gathered as some(prenominal) as possible which also include slow learner syllabus in school and from there thorough analysis is done. The purpose is to identify strengths, weaknesses, area of improvement and what to be done for the enhancement process.Prototype BuildingAfter all analysis has been done, the design of the courseware begins. A sketch is done to get the overview of new courseware to be developed. The sketch will gone through refinement to integrate the content and multimedia elements (animations, flow of information, etc). The details of the design will be recorded. After all details completed, the development of the prototype begin. When the dummy prototype is complete with all required features, it will then tested at th e school to find whether it visualize all the issue that should be addressed. If further refinement is required, the dummy prototype will continuously be build until all requirements is complete.ImplementationAfter all requirements had been fulfilled and the dummy prototype is really visualizing the courseware, it will be declared to be complete and real working courseware will be implemented.Research MethodologiesTo get all the information required, two research methodologies will be chosen that areInterview An interview is conducted with the respective teacher of the school. A test scenario will be deployed to the student using the current courseware along with the interview. This is part of formative evaluation that will test the functionality of the courseware and gauge the user on how they use the courseware. The objective is to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the current courseware and find the area of improvement.Questionnaire The interview and questionnaire will be done with the respective teacher to bring in in depth details of how slow learners learn and gain all relevant data which will be reference in developing the new courseware.Result DiscussionRequirement GatheringInterviewIn the way of gathering data required for the enhancement of the English courseware, an interview is conducted with Pn Khadijah, Coordinator of Special Education for Sekolah Kebangsaan Sultan Yusuf who is also the English teacher for Special Education Department. Using the current courseware made by Mohd Izzat Helmi B Yahya, a test scenario is deployed where the goal is to identify the strengths and the weaknesses of the courseware so that the result found can be implemented during the development of new English courseware. The test scenario will verify the conditions and steps taken in using the courseware sample to get the result for further analysis. three slow learner students from Sekolah Kebangsaan Sultan Yusuf take part in the test scenario. Below are the de tails of the three studentsRespondent 1 A 12 years old boy and is preparing for his UPSR next year. He falls into the category of normal slow learner. His performance in the class is very good. He has the basic skills of using computer which make him able to use the sample courseware properly.Respondent 2 A 12 years old boy. He falls under the category of slow learner and Syndrom Down. He has the basic skills of using computer which make him able to use the sample courseware properly.Respondent 3 A 7 years old boy. He just started his school early this year. He is the most challenging student because he falls under the ICU slow learners category. Moreover, he doesnt have basic skills of using computer which make the test scenario more difficult to be performed.The purpose of choosing these three students is to observe how different categories of slow learners make use of and react to the courseware. Basically, all the student use the courseware in the same way depends on their kn owledge and skills about computer. Below is the summary of result from the test scenario done with all three students.Table 2 Summary of test Scenario ResultNoSimulation DateAction and Data evaluate ResultActual Result112 Apr 2010 effect the courseware interfaceCourseware interface appear successfully212 Apr 2010Launching takings 1 question 1 launched successfully312 Apr 2010Launch Learn from event 1 menuLearning module appear successfully412 Apr 2010Checking audio for point oneAudio working successfully512 Apr 2010Checking synchronization of audio and visual flows.Audio and visual is synchronisedFlow of audio and visual is too fast612 Apr 2010Click the button Play Again for topic 1 learning moduleAudio and visual replay712 Apr 2010Launch influence for topic 1Exercise launchedsuccessfullyExercise for Topic 3 about modify appear812 Apr 2010Performing exercise about numbersExercise done successfullyExercise cannot be performed because exercise for colors appear912 Apr 2010Click the button Play Again for topic 1 exerciseExercise can be redoExercise appear is not for topic 11012 Apr 2010Launching topic 2Topic 2 launched successfully1112 Apr 2010Launch Learn from topic 2 menuLearning module appear successfully1212 Apr 2010Click and hover on the images of the body partsAudio and visuals working to describe the imagesAudio working only if cursor is hovered on the image. When image clicked, nothing happened1312 Apr 2010Launch Exercise for topic 2Exercise launched successfully1412 Apr 2010Drag the words into the respective body partWords dragged successfullyBecause there are some input of the exercise not in the learning module of topic 2, student get confused easily1512 Apr 2010Click the button Play Again for topic 1 exerciseExercise can be redo1612 Apr 2010Launching topic 3Topic 1 launched successfully1712 Apr 2010Launch Learn from topic 3 menuLearning module appear successfully1812 Apr 2010Click and hover on the images of the color.Audio and visuals working to describe the imagesAudio appear when the image is clicked. When it is hovered nothing happened1912 Apr 2010Launch Exercise for topic 3Exercise launchedsuccessfully2012 Apr 2010Dragging each color into the respective jar.Each color dragged successfully2112 Apr 2010 contribute to courseware interface from any point of the coursewareCourseware interface appear successfullyOther that that, Pn Khadijah says that , the teaching syllabus and method are different from the mainstream syllabus. They use preschool syllabus in their learning modules However, if they show good performance the teacher will prepare them to be in national examination like UPSR. More information about the interview will be explained in the next section below.QuestionnaireIn order to get in-depth details of requirements of the courseware to be developed, interviews and questionnaire is conducted with the respective teachers of the schools. This is important because not all required data can be acquired through the t est scenario assessment. The teacher answering the questionnaire is Pn Khadijah, Coordinator of Special Education for Sekolah Kebangsaan Sultan Yusuf. She has years of experience in teaching slow learners especially in English subject. Pn Khadijah is given the overview of the current English courseware and then she is given the questionnaire. Below is the result of questionnaire answered by the teacherData AnalysisFrom the interview and questionnaire conducted with students and teacher of Sekolah Kebangsaan Sultan Yusuf, there are several issue should be addressed about the current English courseware and also what can be improved for the courseware to be developedFlow of audio and visual must be synchronized and not too fast because slow learners couldnt catch up if its too fastFor unknown reason, exercise for Topic 1 that should cover about numbers is replaced with exercise from Topic 3 which is about colours results in having two exercises about colours and the absences of exercis e about number.The instruction is different than what can be done in the learning module. For example the instruction of topic 2 says to click the image to hear the audio. But instead, the audio only appear when cursor is hovered on the image. Nothing happened when it is clicked.Input of the exercise should be the same as what it appears in the learning modules to avoid confusion for slow learners. For example, the input of the exercise for topic 2 includes the stomach part even though it is not taught in the learning modules.Input of learning modules shouldnt be more than 5 in a topic because slow learners could easily forget what they learn if theres too many input.Slow learners in Malaysia are familiar with the Malaysia English. Using U.S English or Britain English in the courseware would confuse them.Students especially kids like learning using computer. Slow learners are not excluded. So the courseware to be developed must be visually attractive.Proposed System architectureFig ure 2 Proposed System ArchitectureThe courseware will integrate use suitable multimedia elements that will support interactive learning environment either for the use at school or at home. This will make the learning process will be more engaging and entertaining.The courseware will consist of 3 modules primarily developed for students of Standard 4 to Standard 6. All this modules will be developed based on learning syllabus for slow learners from Sekolah Kebangsaan Sultan Yusuf.After the application is launched, students will be accessing the courseware interface. To ensure the flexibility of the learning process, students will be given freedom to choose which module they destiny to use. After each module there will be exercise that will test the students understand of the current topic. However, students are free to choose whether they want to do the exercise or not. If they dont want to do the exercise, they can proceed to next module or return to the courseware interface to cho ose other modules. In addressing that slow learners cannot cope with too much input at a time, each module will consist of two parts. This will enable the students to enrich their learning without taking too much input at a time. They have the freedom to choose which part they want to use in a module. The three modules are Numbers, Reading Skills, remains Parts.Module 1NumbersThe first module will teach the students the foundation of recognizing numbers. The first part will teach about how to identify ordinal number and cardinal numbers and whats the difference about them. The present moment part will teach the student how to differentiate between odd numbers and even numbers using the same modules in current English courseware with enhancement made on it.Module 2Reading SkillsThis module is intended to enhance the reading skills of the students.. The activity in the first part will be focus on matching picture. Each time a picture from two sets of pictures will be shown to the s tudent and from there the students will be asked to match the picture with the picture from the set which is not shown. The second part will focus on matching letter and words. The concept will be the same like in the first part.Module 3Body PartsThis module will teach the student the foundation of identifying body parts. The first part will teach the student about main body parts in general. The second part will teach the student specifically about parts on headThe tools chosen for the development of the project will be Gamemaker 8. The reason to use this tool is because it is easy to be used compared to most of other tools. It allow the user to use collection of freeware images and audio for starters like the author to make a game looking courseware which will encompass on drag-and-drop action using the mouse. This tool will be used along with other tools like Adobe Photoshop CS3 and Macromedia Flash where necessary to make the courseware more interactive and rich.ConclusionCurren t English courseware is using basic concept of combining audio with visual in the teaching. Even though, it is still not perfect. There is lots of area for improvement can be made for the courseware. The authors project will take the probability to make enhancement on the courseware to maximize its potential. The new courseware to be developed will be more interactive and rich while in the same time addressing the issue of current courseware. With assistance from various parties such as the authors supervisor, Miss Elaine, teachers of Sekolah Kebangsan Sultan Yusuf as well as other people, this project will succeed.AcknowledgementThe current courseware mentioned in this paper is developed by Mohd Izzat helmi B Yahya where his work had been base for the authors English courseware developed for slow learners. Here the author also would like to thank Ms. Elaine Chen Yoke Yie as the supervisor for the project, Pn Khadijah, Coordinator of Special Education for Sekolah Kebangsaan Sultan Yusuf, and all other parties who had contribute to the project whether directly or indirectly.

Abandoned Oil Wells End of Field Life

Aband cardinald Oil Wells End of cranial orbit LifeABSTRACTAs petroleum, issue continues to decline in m any(prenominal) bankrupt of the globe, more(prenominal) operators ar seeing closely giving up as a reality. Drilled riseheads atomic number 18 good dealged and toss for resistent reasons of which the typical and intakeable reason is that the s sound up has r from each o organize its frugal limit or when drilled it was prep be to be a dry muckle. (refer). harmonise to Ide, T., et al 2006, sanitary bore is interpreted to be high changeful transmittal way of lifeway. Even with the current act of stamping and defection, individual soundlyheads experience the tendency to loose their faithfulness collectable to assorted factors, which include but not limited to deplorable cementumumumumation, poor or insound drudgeging, and increase in defining wring by and by renunciation, wearing away of plate (refer).Safe and economical easy apost asy argon most-valuable to the industry from environsal and fiscal standpoints. Improper forsaking behind require re- giving up procedures to mode drift environmental contamination or to comply with updated regulations, ca victimisation an increase financial burden on the operator.1. Introduction1.1 BACKGROUNDAll wells drilled carry a distinct behavior cycle with respect to its cost, duration, re indemnifyy, and value. Although these characteristics and attributes argon item to an individual drilled well, tout ensemble producing wells pass through the same initial and final show, beginning with completion and ending with forsaking. afterward the anele production face of a well and the target depth is reached, a decision to complete the well is make order on the artificial lake attributes is the well dry or is the hydrocarbon in place of economic value. Ultimately, every well be passs dormant beca intention of reduced economic returns or technical problem. When a well stops producing, it both whitethorn be draw in (SI), temporary decrepit (TA) or indissolublely aband unitaryd (pa).With age fields fast approaching their economic limit, apostasy is becoming progressively frequent and many operators adjudge to modify their apostasy procedure to fit the Wellbore human body and soak up certain that abandoned wells remain permanently plastered and prevent commingling man balancing the environmental objectives of renunciation and cost of actual abandonment. Wells, which are not abandoned appropriately, foot bring a major imperil to the tube-shaped structure line of drinking water and possibly the aquatic environment 8 turf out in status (SI)When a well is draw in it is still bunking but its Christmas tree, SV, wing valves are all closed. Usually a well is shut-in if there is a technical or leadal problem, which is believed to be temporary. in that respect is no maximum time for a well to remain in shut-in status as long a s it is regularly maintained accord to regulative requirement and procedures.Temporary abandonment status (TA)A well is utter to be temporarily abandoned when the wellhead is removed and the producing interval is apart(p) with a pot and the cuticle is hackged below the mud line.REASONS FOR renunciation at that place are various reasons why a well is abandoned, these are oddity OF FIELD LIFE ABANDONMENTDrilled wells must at one point in time be abandoned. Before a well reaches the point at which it has to be abandoned it passes through various stages in its life cycle it begins with the survey and exploitation of an area for signs on hydrocarbon 1. This leads to a reward and exciting discovery of an accumulation of hydrocarbon deposit. This is followed by the acquired Data Processing stage and in the end the drilling process. During drilling, the well is created by the call of drill act and case off at specific as drilling progresses.Another fulfilling target is reached when the root hydrocarbon is produced a process which unfortunately eventually proceeds the declining period where the swan of hydrocarbon production decreases. However, boffo enhanced oil recovery techniques often than not make this stage rewarding financially as it extends the life of the well 1.When all enhanced oil recovery technique has been employed, and the cost of producing the well is no seven-day economically viable, the next process is abandonment a stage not so wel coiffed by most operators as it means the cessation of production. Dry hole forsakingA drilled well is overly abandoned when aft(prenominal) drilling, the hole was found to be a dry hole.Though abandonment is meant to be a permanent termination, the effect is felt for many days more than that of the short producing life of the well.The main goal of any plugging and abandonment is to provide a permanent and hard-hitting isolation of eloquents all along the sub mount organisation in the disparate la yers where they were enclosed prior to plugging, thereby preventing legato migration and reduce environmental risks of contamination and prevent costly remedial jobs 1. To execute this several signifi batht intervals of the well must be fill up and tightly closed with a sealant satisfying from bottom hole to the surface with special attention stipendiary to the production interval 4 and zones of high una identicalial pressure and temperature. The actual employ for plugging differ depending on what type of well is being abandoned, for oil and gas well the substantive used is normally cement establish materials, for water well, cement based as well as bentonite foundation be used to discriminate the different intervals4 PUT UNDER CEMENT PLUG CHARACTERISTICS UNDERE INTEGRITY OF ABANDONED WELLS. The truth of the abandoned well can fail for very many reasons such(prenominal) as plug failure, poor slurry design etc. A cement plug can fail to tog at the desired office as ceme nt slurry often has the tendency to fall through the lighter drilling fluid below it 9. Failure can also be as a result of downhole changes which may occur after the well has been abandoned 8.Over the years, techniques for drilling and completion of hydrocarbon wells behave continued to evolve. This drive for new engineering science for hydrocarbon recovery is due to the enquire to maximize hydrocarbon recovery while comforting the environment 4. The evolution of well abandonment techniques has been much slower than that of drilling and completion. This is because abandonment is considered a sunk cost 4.Project ObjectiveThe objectives of this thesis is to redirect examination the factors which stand to the overall integrity of abandoned wells. These include, well parameters, cement placement techniques, plate integrity. These play an important role in the design, construction and actual execution of the abandonment construe. In the abandonment of wells, the factors that con tribute to the integrity differ depending on the wells. This is because each well is a unique entity and thereof has to have independent well abandonment design.PROJECT METHODOLOGYIn this work I intend to lecturing aboutFor deterrent example, in a well where a fish is lost in hole the abandonment design has to taken into consideration remedial work or ways to hang the cement plug as there may be no ingress to the bottom hole to particularise a bottom plug in the sump.Abandoned wells can be a cause of concern due to their potential to act as path for flow between formations, which under normal circumstance are isolated including underground writers of drinking water, of great concern are those abandonments with faulty plugs, compromised typesetters case and those having cracks in the cement 7.This work is aimed at highlighting the different factors which contribute to the integrity of an abandoned well. ( re read and rewrite)Chapter 2Literature reviewWell abandonment has come a long way since the start discovery of oil and gas, with the increase knowingness of the importance of environmental trade protection, the need to improve the processes of abandonment has now become a major concern for many operators, as abandoned wells are considered a possible conduit for fluid flow between different formations. According to C. H. Kelm et al, the objective of abandonment of a well must taken into consideration the need to do so in a best practices manner by examining the following fundamental aim of any abandonment processThe need to protect any hydrocarbon left in the pay zone of the formation drilled.The need to preserve and prevent contamination of freshwater zones (for onshore rigs) penetrated during the course of drilling the well. debar of any contamination of the surface environment. For instance, in the case of vegetation, air pollution and marine environment.The need to abide by all regulative requirements stated in during the abandonment.In the pas t years many papers has been published on areas ranging from alternative plugging technique, self healing and expandable cement, improved cement slurry design, placement technique with the aim to reduce the cost of abandonment and improve the abandonment. Abandoned well in an oil field are sealed utilise a plugging material according to regulatory requirements. A perfect example of a plugging material in the ideal sense according to D.G Calvert et al 1994 is one, which can be manage down the drilled hole, has the major power to flavour in a sensitive time, and bond with the walls of the drilled formation and casing in order to prevent fluid flow from one formation to another. While regulations vary from place to place, the worldwide practice involves plugging the Wellbore with a Portland cement material specifically knowing for the isolation purpose. In his review of plugging and abandonment techniques, D. G. Calvert et al, stated that the cement mixture used in oil and gas v ary depending on the type of hole is to be isolated. rattling few papers has been published that focuses on the integrity of the actual well after abandonment. Liversidge, D. et al. in his work on permanent plug and abandonment firmness for the Northsea he presented case histories of the Brent South field abandonment project done using both class G cement with an expandable doer system and flexible cement according to the current stringent regulation.cementum integrity preservation during well completion, production phases as well as during abandonment is of critical importance for long-term protection. In the past years numerous papers and texts in the area of cement sheath failure, improved flexible and expanding cement and advertd topics have been published, indicating the increasing need to improve well abandonment and reduce cost. Examples of works published include but not limited to (Bosma et al 2000), (Ravi et al. 2002), (Glessner et al., 2005), (Mainguy et al., 2007), (D . G calvert et al., 1994), (Locolier et al., 2006),( Liversidge et al., 2006). Although many papers have been written, very little work has been done to investigate the cement plug integrity after abandonment. The ascribed cause to this may be that permanent abandonment is considered a non-profit venture.Mainguy M. et al., 2007 carried out an analysis of the luck of failure of cement plugs when subjected to varying compressive and tensile load using an ideal reservoir manikin designed to suit changes in the downhole condition. In his study he identified that there is a greater tendency for the material used to seal zones for abandonment to fail in wells situated where there is imbalance in the pressure, temperature and stress state due to changes that occur downhole. He concluded that when the plug is subjected to maximum tensile stress it failed due to the low tensile loudness of the conventional class G cement. Though he suggested the use of pre-stressed cement as they adapt mo re to changes downhole, his work did not cover the problem of rock-cement de-bonding which is a problem that greatly reduces the sealing hoodlumacity of cement. In the study done by R.C. Smith et al., 1984, on the successful method of setting cement plug, he investigated the ongoing failures of cement plugs due to the instability caused by the difference between the niggardness of the cement and the drilling mud. In his work, he suggested the use of mud pachydermatous with bentonite before espial the cement so as to free a greater density difference. With respect to the problem of check up onling the snap of flow of the cement slurry a diverter placed at the end of the tube-shaped structure to booster divert the direction of flow and improve stability. Drilling fluid can also be used as a plugging material by adding a cementitous additive. The additive can every be fly ash of blast furnace slag which have the characteristics of a cement as they harden when the mixed with wa ter.Cement is not of course occurring but manmade and like any other manmade material, it is evaluate to age, wear-off, and, degrade overtime under different subsurface condition, which may differ from the time it was initially set W. Zhou et. al 2005.Plugging oil well is a common operation, which is increasing as mature field reach the end of their producing life. In general, plugging and abandonment of a well involves filling a certain length of casing or open hole with a volume of cement mixture designed for it in order to provide adequate sealing against upward migration of formation fluid. After the cement plug is place in the desired location it is left to harden over time. The placement of the cement plug is a major part of abandonment, as failure of this testament cause commingling of fluids from different formation. The setting and spotting of cement plugs can be done in various ways depending on the wellbore condition and regulatory requirement.A review of the worldwid e acceptable plugging procedure shows the a stripped of three cement plugs is demand of which two are, the first plug is put in place by squeezing the cement plug through the perforation into the former producing zone in order to seal off any further influx of reservoir fluid into the Wellbore2. The second plug is usually set towards the middle of the Wellbore or near a protective casing shoe. last the troika plug is set about200- 300ft below the mud line. In general, the length of a plug ranges from 100to 200ft depending on the regulatory requirements. Any additional plug set is dependent on the well bore condition.Although observations and studies show that cement plugs have the ability to perform as expected for up to several decades, uncertainty exists that the material can maintain its isolation integrity for several thousands of years. Recent study shows that abandoned wells in which CO2 was used in the enhanced oil recovery technique prior to abandonment have the potentia l to leak and allow CO2 migration notwithstanding the fact that the well has been properly abandoned Scherer, G.W et al, 2005. This is in the main due to corrosion and degradation of the casing and cement. This degradation and corrosion occurs when carbonic vitriolic formed from the dissolution of CO2 in brine attacks the cement and casing Scherer, G.W et al, 2005 a process, which is dependent on the temperature of the formation, cement composition, brine and the rock mechanics and composition. probable leakage of reservoir fluids through degraded cement plugs is hence of simple concern.Various work on inter-formational flow shows that there is still the possibility of flow between formations even with a successful plugging of different interval. This case can arise when the abandoned well is near an active well. Javandel et al developed the first analytical model their model showed the possible of flow to an upper formation in response to a lower injection pressure build up in a lower formation. Striz and wiggings carried out further work by developing a coupled model to predict flow using a steady state approach to create a transient flow. This model can be used to developed abandoned fluid flow using available field data.In recent studies, statistics show that in the US one in every three well drilled for hydrocarbon is dry and have to be plugged and abandonedD.G Calvert, et al 1994. Wells are drilled for various reasons ranging from industrial, oil and gas, to municipal uses, but in the end these well have to be abandoned D.G Calvert, et al 1994. Some wells were abandoned before any regulation and guidelines were defined, these wells may have either been plugged improperly or not plugged at all and these now poses a terror to the quality of the groundwater. For the aim of regulating bodies to be achieved i.e. achieving underground water protect and hence environmental protect, the operating companies must understand that following the different regul atory requirement alone is not sufficient to guarantee a lasting protection of the environment 4.It is both(prenominal)times difficult for operators to abide by the regulatory requirements as well as developing a plan which would both serve to seal off the reservoir and provide long-term protection of the environment while justifying the overall cost in general 4.Currently there is a high rise in abandonment of ageing and mature field which either have reached their economic limit or are no longer producing (refer).Methods of ABANDONMENTThe initial stage of a decommissioning process is the plugging and abandonment of the wells, during this stage, the tubing, casing strings, and, conductors are cut below the mud line and removed, zones are sealed with cement plug to isolate the flow path between the reservoir fluids and other zones as well as the surface. Zones not sealed with cement plug are filled with mud with fluid having the proper weight and consistency to prevent proceeding of other fluids into the wellbore.Most abandonments follow a general methodology that is adjusted to conglomerate individual well requirements. As procedures can and do change substantively for each well, cement plug design should frequently be attuned to reach minimum wait-on-cement (WOC) times with varying downhole conditions. Near-wellbore geology should be assessed, and the wellbore and annuli properly cleaned to avoid microannuli and poor cement bonding. Traditional techniques include cement squeezes, gel squeezes, and mechanical plugs such as couple plugs and packers. Cement and gel technologies are mainly used for behind casing repair, and mechanical options are usually confined to plugging the casing.In the general process of abandonment there as basic steps which are followed to ensure successful plug and abandonment syllabus. This includes the plan process, wellbore equipment testing, designing, well geometry assessment.PA PLANNINGThe most crucial decision after when to abandon a well 11 is how. Preparation is a key ingredient in plug and abandonment of a well. In order to abandon a well successfully careful planning and effective plugging and abandonment procedure is crucial to prevent gas or fluids from moving to the surface or to other subsurface formations. In addition to the environmental risks that come with poor seals, corrective plugging may be necessary, increasing the cost and difficulty of abandoning a well. However, operators and service companies have several options for obtaining complete, permanent abandonment.For every well, there is a variation as each well PA is unique and different. The techniques used to achieve this process are generally based on industry practice, research, and conformity with the relevant regulatory compliance requirement. The synthesis of practical knowledge, current technology and regulatory requirements results in the most effective wellbore plugging and abandonment possible.Wellbore equipment testing .A preliminary reassessment and survey of the wellhead and wellbore condition is carried out to determine if the valves on the wellhead are in operable condition, if it is found not to be in operable condition they are hot-tapped. The wellbore is surveyed using a slickline social unit to check for any obstructions in the well, to confirm measured depth and also to gauge the internal diameter of the tubing. After the survey and removal of the slickline, the annuli and tubing is filled with fluid using a well pump is installed at the wellhead to ascertain an injection rate into the perforations. The tubing and casing are also pressured up to check for integrity. Casing annuli are also pressure tested to check for communication problems between casing strings and to record the test pressure over a period of time. The integrity and reliability of the elemental cement is assessed in order to ensure that the cement sheath is still providing isolation across the reservoir and the cap ro ck.A well control plan is designed to establish reservoir condition and subsequently the contingency responses to any event which may occur during the abandonment process.DESIGN OF A WELL ABANDONMENT PROGRAMPrior to plugging and abandoning a well, a review of the alert well design, record of past work, previous well performance and geologic and reservoir condition is carried out by the operator. The investigation of everything that may relate to the health and safety issues as well as regulatory requirements is also performed, after which the design of the abandonment program begins. The design is done based the existing wellbore and reservoir conditions depending on the findings from the review and investigation. This allows the operator to plan an abandonment program that will satisfy the goal of making the well safe from future resources. PA design needs to be integrated in the planning of the well, and should be considered in a single budget. There are many factors which must b e put into consideration in order to design an effective abandonment program , such as, the reservoir status, the integrity of the primary cement, hole cleaning and cement placement technique, the temperature and pressure of the well, the type of fluid in the well, the age of the well, the status of the cap rock.Fluid TypeDrilled wells produce fluids in fluid and gaseous form, wells which contain sour fluids i.e. sulphur rich would be expected to have accelerated corrosion rates and stress cracking depending on the age and wellbore construction, may impair the capacity to perform plug and abandonment, to mitigate this components which are corrosion resistant can be used.Reservoir statusIn the design of PA, it is necessary to consider the reservoir status concerning its stability, the current pressure and temperature, the pressure at the initial stages of well development and the permeability of the reservoir both horizontal and vertical. With the information, plug and abandonment i s hence designed to withstand the pressure of the well after finally reach equilibrium.Cap rock StatusIt is also necessary to take into consideration the cap rock status i.e. is it still impermeable, has production activities induced fracture or has weathering taken effect.Placing the PlugsAfter the design and planning of the abandonment program, calculations must be made to determine the amount of cement required and the number of wiper plugs needed to separate the cement plugs from the rest of the fluids. The use of wiper plugs enables the formation of a stable platform on which the cement can be set. A wiper plug is placed in the wellbore, and then a predetermined quantity of cement slurry is pumped on top of it. Because of its weight, the slurry becomes a driving force. The slurry falls to the bottom of the hole, pushing the wiper plug frontwards of it and forcing existing air and produced fluids back into the formation. Another plug and perhaps a bit more cement finish the jo b. In most wells, where there is one permaeble zone, one plug and one volume of cement and the surface plug are all that is needed. In other wells, additional wiper plugs, additional cement slurry, and probably spacers of water or drilling fluid are used consecutively until all of the air and fluid is forced out into the formation, there is postal code pressure on the pipe, and it is apparent from the returns that the whole wellbore is appropriately sealed. The quantity and kind of spacer fluid that can be used is dependent on individual state regulations. The remaining casing at the top of the well is cut off 3 ft below ground level.Along with this general methodology, each contribution stipulates its own abandonment methods based on field conditions and local regulations as can be seen in the following examples.PA steps in Los Angeles water parting in as follows 12The abandonment program is prepared with the support of a certifiable engineer.A schematic showing the current mech anical condition of the well is prepared.The geologic condition of the well, including the structure, faulting, and producing zones is assessed.The depth and position of cement plug that will cover the producing zones and any potable water zones if applicable is measured and verified.Choice of whether to use perforating or cavity shots is made.The casing is pressure tested after setting cement retainers.The different equipment required for the job is determined and assembled.Estimate of abandonment/re-abandonment be is made.In contrast, the steps followed for the Hutton tension-leg platform (TLP) in the EastShetland Basin of the North ocean involved three phases 13Perform standalone wireline noise.Perform drilling unit intervention to set the cement plugs after the first wireline plug has been set.Cut casing 10 ft below the seabed and recover casing stumps.Another abandonment performed in the North sea followed a different procedure 14A permanent cement primary barrier placed imm ediately above the reservoir.A secondary barrier placed as a back-up to the first barrier.A third barrier then placed near the surface to isolate alter water-bearing sands.Severed completion tubing and recover wellhead.In Western Canada, the traditional abandonment procedure of wells with casing vent flows included the followingThe source of the casing vent flow is estimated or determined.If the source zone is shallower than the producing zone, the producing zone is abandoned.The source zone is perforated. Depending on the feed rate obtained at the estimated source depth, either a bradenhead or a retainer squeeze is performed.Retrievable tools are used as required.Typically, Class G cement with Calcium Chloride and some fluid-loss control is utilized.The slurry is placed and a static squeeze pressure of 7 MPa is attempted.As needed, cement is drilled out and perforations are tested for seal.Often, several attempts are made in order to obtain a static squeeze pressure of 7 Mpa on su rface or mitigate the casing vent flow.Techniques for AbandonmentThe techniques used for plugging and abandonment of drilled well worldwide are generally based on industry practise. These techniques includeRigCoil tubing unitRigless abandonmentCOIL TUBING UNITThe flexibility of coiled tubing has late been tailored to develop rigless abandonment 15,16. This method, focuses on harmonizing all well service to accomplish utmost efficiency. Coiled-tubing unit fig. abandonment, like any other method, is more effective when appropriate cementing procedure is used from the kick-off of the well, from original zonal isolation with the primary cement sheath to plugging and abandonment. Early prevention of microannulus can help operators obtain a complete final seal.Five main criteria are recommended for optimal abandonment performance with coiled tubingMobility All equipment should be mounted on wheels for increased mobility.Self-sufficiency the service company provides nearly all activities. Dry location Fluids are not drained on or near the wellsite.Single operation the job is completed in one visit to the wellsite.Low mileage Move time is reduced and transport optimized for maximum efficiency in unit and camp moves.In this abandonment technique geological consideration like the type and condition of the reservoir and caprock formations are take into account. Permanent seals typically must be made between producing zones and at impermeable caprock formations. The condition and contour line of cement, perforations, tubulars, and downhole equipment are also considered.In addition to providing complete, permanent seals, the use of coiled-tubing can help increase abandonment efficiency. This method can provide the following advantagesincrease tripping speedsIncreased rig-move efficiencyPrecise placement of cement plugs exact spotting of plugs at the interval of interest even in deep well as coil tubing can be reciprocated while pumping.Suitable for use on live wells it is possible to run CTU for remedial cement squeeze in live well as the wellbore can be controlled using the BOP and stripper assembly.No need to pull production tubing existing tubing and wellheads do not have to be removed to access the producing interval.Success using the coil tubing method has been recorded in Oman.REGULATORY REQUIREMENT FOR ABANDONMENT IN THE NORTHSEA AND USAIn the early years on the oil and gas industry, many wells were drilled and some were found to be dry and subsequently were abandoned without much consideration presumption to the manner in which the wells were abandoned. Sometimes tree stumps were thrown in the well as a means to plug it 3, during this era the preservation of the groundwater, in general, the environment was not a major issue, and there was no defined regulation by the oil states or agencies. During the tail end of the 1930s different states and agencies in the US started establishing regulations, this defined requirement to ensure better wel l abandonment D.G Calvert, et al 1994.The number of regulation guiding well abandonment has rise along with the rising need to protect the environment in countries most the world. Today most countries have some form of regulation that addresses well abandonment requirement though these regulations are not uniform and differ from uncouth to country and body to body, they provide a minimum standard for operating companies. For instance for the state of calcium in the United States of America, the different governing bodies have their own regulations which are as followsMinerals Management Services (MMS) The basic plugging requirements are found in 30 CFR 250.110 Subpart G.Department of Conservation, Division of Oil Gas, and Geothermal Resources (DOC)The calcium Code of Regulations Title 14 Division 2, Chapter 4 beginning with Section 1745 focuses on the fundamental plugging requirements.California State Lands Commission (CSLC) The fundamental plugging requirements in the California Code of Regulations Title 2 Section 2128(q).Abandonment in the North SeaIn the North Sea as in US, the regulations differ. The different countries that make up the North Sea have their different governing bodies and subsequently different regulation. The law in the UK, Norway, Denmark and Holland holds the last operator of a well responsible and responsible to pay for all the cost incurred in permanently abandoning the well. It also holds them accountable for any leakage and any clean up that may be required in the event of a leak.Abandonment programs in the Northsea are designed to meet the guidelines for abandonment issued by the operation association or government. For the UK empyrean of the north sea, abandonment guidelines is issued by the UKOOA, similarly for the Norwegian sector the guidelines are contained in the NORSOK/PTIL D-010 standard and for the Netherlands it is contained in the Dutch MiningAbandoned Oil Wells End of Field LifeAbandoned Oil Wells End of Field Life ABSTRACTAs petroleum, production continues to decline in many parts of the globe, more operators are seeing well abandonment as a reality. Drilled wells are plugged and abandoned for different reasons of which the typical and operational reason is that the well has reached its economic limit or when drilled it was found to be a dry hole. (refer). According to Ide, T., et al 2006, well bore is taken to be high fluid transmittal pathway. Even with the current procedure of sealing and abandonment, individual wells have the tendency to loose their integrity due to various factors, which include but not limited to poor cementation, poor or ineffective plugging, and increase in formation pressure after abandonment, corrosion of casing (refer).Safe and economical well abandonment are important to the industry from environmental and financial standpoints. Improper abandonment can require re-abandonment procedures to mitigate environmental contamination or to comply with updated regulations, causing an increased financial burden on the operator.1. Introduction1.1 BACKGROUNDAll wells drilled have a distinct life cycle with respect to its cost, duration, recovery, and value. Although these characteristics and attributes are specific to an individual drilled well, all producing wells pass through the same initial and final state, beginning with completion and ending with abandonment. After the drilling stage of a well and the target depth is reached, a decision to complete the well is made based on the reservoir attributes is the well dry or is the hydrocarbon in place of economic value. Ultimately, every well becomes dormant because of reduced economic returns or technical problem. When a well stops producing, it either may be shut-in (SI), temporary abandoned (TA) or permanently abandoned (pa).With ageing fields fast approaching their economic limit, abandonment is becoming increasingly frequent and many operators have to modify their abandonment procedure to fit the We llbore condition and make certain that abandoned wells remain permanently sealed and prevent commingling while balancing the environmental objectives of abandonment and cost of actual abandonment. Wells, which are not abandoned appropriately, can become a major hazard to the underground source of drinking water and possibly the aquatic environment 8Shut in status (SI)When a well is shut-in it is still sleek but its Christmas tree, SV, wing valves are all closed. Usually a well is shut-in if there is a technical or operational problem, which is believed to be temporary. There is no maximum time for a well to remain in shut-in status as long as it is regularly maintained according to regulatory requirement and procedures.Temporary abandonment status (TA)A well is said to be temporarily abandoned when the wellhead is removed and the producing interval is isolated with a plug and the casing is plugged below the mud line.REASONS FOR ABANDONMENTThere are various reasons why a well is aba ndoned, these areEND OF FIELD LIFE ABANDONMENTDrilled wells must at one point in time be abandoned. Before a well reaches the point at which it has to be abandoned it passes through various stages in its life cycle it begins with the survey and exploitation of an area for signs on hydrocarbon 1. This leads to a rewarding and exciting discovery of an accumulation of hydrocarbon deposit. This is followed by the acquired Data Processing stage and finally the drilling process. During drilling, the well is created by the use of drill bit and cased off at specific as drilling progresses.Another fulfilling target is reached when the first hydrocarbon is produced a process which unfortunately eventually proceeds the declining period where the rate of hydrocarbon production decreases. However, successful enhanced oil recovery techniques often than not make this stage rewarding financially as it extends the life of the well 1.When all enhanced oil recovery technique has been employed, and the cost of producing the well is no longer economically viable, the next process is abandonment a stage not so welcomed by most operators as it means the cessation of production. Dry hole AbandonmentA drilled well is also abandoned when after drilling, the hole was found to be a dry hole.Though abandonment is meant to be a permanent termination, the effect is felt for many years more than that of the short producing life of the well.The main goal of any plugging and abandonment is to provide a permanent and effective isolation of fluids all along the subsurface formation in the different layers where they were enclosed prior to plugging, thereby preventing fluid migration and reduce environmental risks of contamination and prevent costly remedial jobs 1. To achieve this several significant intervals of the well must be filled and tightly closed with a sealant material from bottom hole to the surface with special attention paid to the production interval 4 and zones of high differentia l pressure and temperature. The material used for plugging differ depending on what type of well is being abandoned, for oil and gas well the material used is normally cement based materials, for water well, cement based as well as bentonite can be used to isolate the different intervals4 PUT UNDER CEMENT PLUG CHARACTERISTICS UNDERE INTEGRITY OF ABANDONED WELLS. The integrity of the abandoned well can fail for very many reasons such as plug failure, poor slurry design etc. A cement plug can fail to set at the desired location as cement slurry often has the tendency to fall through the lighter drilling fluid below it 9. Failure can also be as a result of downhole changes which may occur after the well has been abandoned 8.Over the years, techniques for drilling and completion of hydrocarbon wells have continued to evolve. This drive for new technology for hydrocarbon recovery is due to the need to maximize hydrocarbon recovery while protecting the environment 4. The evolution of well abandonment techniques has been much slower than that of drilling and completion. This is because abandonment is considered a sunk cost 4.Project ObjectiveThe objectives of this thesis is to review the factors which contribute to the overall integrity of abandoned wells. These include, well parameters, cement placement techniques, casing integrity. These play an important role in the design, construction and actual execution of the abandonment project. In the abandonment of wells, the factors that contribute to the integrity differ depending on the wells. This is because each well is a unique entity and hence has to have independent well abandonment design.PROJECT METHODOLOGYIn this work I intend to talk aboutFor instance, in a well where a fish is lost in hole the abandonment design has to taken into consideration remedial action or ways to set the cement plug as there may be no access to the bottom hole to set a bottom plug in the sump.Abandoned wells can be a cause of concern du e to their potential to act as path for flow between formations, which under normal circumstance are isolated including underground sources of drinking water, of great concern are those abandonments with faulty plugs, compromised casing and those having cracks in the cement 7.This work is aimed at highlighting the different factors which contribute to the integrity of an abandoned well. ( reorder and rewrite)Chapter 2Literature reviewWell abandonment has come a long way since the first discovery of oil and gas, with the increasing awareness of the importance of environmental protection, the need to improve the processes of abandonment has now become a major concern for many operators, as abandoned wells are considered a possible conduit for fluid flow between different formations. According to C. H. Kelm et al, the objective of abandonment of a well must taken into consideration the need to do so in a best practices manner by examining the following fundamental aim of any abandonmen t processThe need to protect any hydrocarbon left in the pay zone of the formation drilled.The need to preserve and prevent contamination of freshwater zones (for onshore rigs) penetrated during the course of drilling the well.Avert of any contamination of the surface environment. For instance, in the case of vegetation, air pollution and marine environment.The need to abide by all regulatory requirements stated in during the abandonment.In the past years many papers has been published on areas ranging from alternative plugging technique, self healing and expandable cement, improved cement slurry design, placement technique with the aim to reduce the cost of abandonment and improve the abandonment. Abandoned well in an oil field are sealed using a plugging material according to regulatory requirements. A perfect example of a plugging material in the ideal sense according to D.G Calvert et al 1994 is one, which can be pumped down the drilled hole, has the ability to harden in a reaso nable time, and bond with the walls of the drilled formation and casing in order to prevent fluid flow from one formation to another. While regulations vary from place to place, the general practice involves plugging the Wellbore with a Portland cement material specifically designed for the isolation purpose. In his review of plugging and abandonment techniques, D. G. Calvert et al, stated that the cement mixture used in oil and gas vary depending on the type of hole is to be isolated.Very few papers has been published that focuses on the integrity of the actual well after abandonment. Liversidge, D. et al. in his work on permanent plug and abandonment solution for the Northsea he presented case histories of the Brent South field abandonment project done using both class G cement with an expandable agent system and flexible cement according to the current stringent regulation.Cement integrity preservation during well completion, production phases as well as during abandonment is of critical importance for long-term protection. In the past years numerous papers and texts in the area of cement sheath failure, improved flexible and expanding cement and related topics have been published, indicating the increasing need to improve well abandonment and reduce cost. Examples of works published include but not limited to (Bosma et al 2000), (Ravi et al. 2002), (Glessner et al., 2005), (Mainguy et al., 2007), (D. G calvert et al., 1994), (Locolier et al., 2006),( Liversidge et al., 2006). Although many papers have been written, very little work has been done to investigate the cement plug integrity after abandonment. The ascribed cause to this may be that permanent abandonment is considered a non-profit venture.Mainguy M. et al., 2007 carried out an analysis of the probability of failure of cement plugs when subjected to varying compressive and tensile load using an ideal reservoir model designed to suit changes in the downhole condition. In his study he identified tha t there is a greater tendency for the material used to seal zones for abandonment to fail in wells situated where there is instability in the pressure, temperature and stress state due to changes that occur downhole. He concluded that when the plug is subjected to maximum tensile stress it failed due to the low tensile strength of the conventional class G cement. Though he suggested the use of pre-stressed cement as they adapt more to changes downhole, his work did not cover the problem of rock-cement de-bonding which is a problem that greatly reduces the sealing capacity of cement. In the study done by R.C. Smith et al., 1984, on the successful method of setting cement plug, he investigated the ongoing failures of cement plugs due to the instability caused by the difference between the density of the cement and the drilling mud. In his work, he suggested the use of mud thickened with bentonite before spotting the cement so as to allow a greater density difference. With respect to t he problem of controlling the direction of flow of the cement slurry a diverter placed at the end of the tubing to help divert the direction of flow and improve stability. Drilling fluid can also be used as a plugging material by adding a cementitous additive. The additive can either be fly ash of blast furnace slag which have the characteristics of a cement as they harden when the mixed with water.Cement is not naturally occurring but manmade and like any other manmade material, it is expected to age, wear-off, and, degrade overtime under different subsurface condition, which may differ from the time it was initially set W. Zhou et. al 2005.Plugging oil well is a common operation, which is increasing as mature field reach the end of their producing life. In general, plugging and abandonment of a well involves filling a certain length of casing or open hole with a volume of cement mixture designed for it in order to provide adequate sealing against upward migration of formation flui d. After the cement plug is place in the desired location it is left to harden over time. The placement of the cement plug is a major part of abandonment, as failure of this will cause commingling of fluids from different formation. The setting and spotting of cement plugs can be done in various ways depending on the wellbore condition and regulatory requirement.A review of the worldwide acceptable plugging procedure shows the a minimum of three cement plugs is required of which two are, the first plug is put in place by squeezing the cement plug through the perforation into the former producing zone in order to seal off any further influx of reservoir fluid into the Wellbore2. The second plug is usually set towards the middle of the Wellbore or near a protective casing shoe. Finally the third plug is set about200- 300ft below the mud line. In general, the length of a plug ranges from 100to 200ft depending on the regulatory requirements. Any additional plug set is dependent on the w ell bore condition.Although observations and studies show that cement plugs have the ability to perform as expected for up to several decades, uncertainty exists that the material can maintain its isolation integrity for several thousands of years. Recent study shows that abandoned wells in which CO2 was used in the enhanced oil recovery technique prior to abandonment have the potential to leak and allow CO2 migration notwithstanding the fact that the well has been properly abandoned Scherer, G.W et al, 2005. This is mainly due to corrosion and degradation of the casing and cement. This degradation and corrosion occurs when carbonic acid formed from the dissolution of CO2 in brine attacks the cement and casing Scherer, G.W et al, 2005 a process, which is dependent on the temperature of the formation, cement composition, brine and the rock mechanics and composition. Potential leakage of reservoir fluids through degraded cement plugs is hence of primary concern.Various work on inter-f ormational flow shows that there is still the possibility of flow between formations even with a successful plugging of different interval. This case can arise when the abandoned well is near an active well. Javandel et al developed the first analytical model their model showed the possible of flow to an upper formation in response to a lower injection pressure build up in a lower formation. Striz and wiggings carried out further work by developing a coupled model to predict flow using a steady state approach to create a transient flow. This model can be used to developed abandoned fluid flow using available field data.In recent studies, statistics show that in the US one in every three well drilled for hydrocarbon is dry and have to be plugged and abandonedD.G Calvert, et al 1994. Wells are drilled for various reasons ranging from industrial, oil and gas, to municipal uses, but in the end these well have to be abandoned D.G Calvert, et al 1994. Some wells were abandoned before any regulation and guidelines were defined, these wells may have either been plugged improperly or not plugged at all and these now poses a threat to the quality of the groundwater. For the aim of regulating bodies to be achieved i.e. achieving underground water protect and hence environmental protect, the operating companies must understand that following the different regulatory requirement alone is not sufficient to guarantee a lasting protection of the environment 4.It is sometimes difficult for operators to abide by the regulatory requirements as well as developing a plan which would both serve to seal off the reservoir and provide long-term protection of the environment while justifying the overall cost in general 4.Currently there is a high rise in abandonment of ageing and mature field which either have reached their economic limit or are no longer producing (refer).Methods of ABANDONMENTThe initial stage of a decommissioning process is the plugging and abandonment of the wells, during this stage, the tubing, casing strings, and, conductors are cut below the mud line and removed, zones are sealed with cement plug to isolate the flow path between the reservoir fluids and other zones as well as the surface. Zones not sealed with cement plug are filled with mud with fluid having the proper weight and consistency to prevent movement of other fluids into the wellbore.Most abandonments follow a general methodology that is adjusted to meet individual well requirements. As procedures can and do change significantly for each well, cement plug design should frequently be attuned to reach minimum wait-on-cement (WOC) times with varying downhole conditions. Near-wellbore geology should be assessed, and the wellbore and annuli properly cleaned to avoid microannuli and poor cement bonding. Traditional techniques include cement squeezes, gel squeezes, and mechanical plugs such as bridge plugs and packers. Cement and gel technologies are mainly used for behind casing rep air, and mechanical options are usually confined to plugging the casing.In the general process of abandonment there as basic steps which are followed to ensure successful plug and abandonment program. This includes the planning process, wellbore equipment testing, designing, well geometry assessment.PA PLANNINGThe most essential decision after when to abandon a well 11 is how. Preparation is a key ingredient in plug and abandonment of a well. In order to abandon a well successfully careful planning and effective plugging and abandonment procedure is crucial to prevent gas or fluids from moving to the surface or to other subsurface formations. In addition to the environmental risks that come with poor seals, corrective plugging may be necessary, increasing the cost and difficulty of abandoning a well. However, operators and service companies have several options for obtaining complete, permanent abandonment.For every well, there is a variation as each well PA is unique and different. The techniques used to achieve this process are generally based on industry practice, research, and conformance with the relevant regulatory compliance requirement. The synthesis of practical knowledge, current technology and regulatory requirements results in the most effective wellbore plugging and abandonment possible.Wellbore equipment testing.A preliminary inspection and survey of the wellhead and wellbore condition is carried out to determine if the valves on the wellhead are in operable condition, if it is found not to be in operable condition they are hot-tapped. The wellbore is surveyed using a slickline unit to check for any obstructions in the well, to confirm measured depth and also to gauge the internal diameter of the tubing. After the survey and removal of the slickline, the annuli and tubing is filled with fluid using a well pump is installed at the wellhead to ascertain an injection rate into the perforations. The tubing and casing are also pressured up to check fo r integrity. Casing annuli are also pressure tested to check for communication problems between casing strings and to record the test pressure over a period of time. The integrity and reliability of the primary cement is assessed in order to ensure that the cement sheath is still providing isolation across the reservoir and the cap rock.A well control plan is designed to establish reservoir condition and subsequently the contingency responses to any event which may occur during the abandonment process.DESIGN OF A WELL ABANDONMENT PROGRAMPrior to plugging and abandoning a well, a review of the existing well design, record of past work, previous well performance and geologic and reservoir condition is carried out by the operator. The investigation of everything that may relate to the health and safety issues as well as regulatory requirements is also performed, after which the design of the abandonment program begins. The design is done based the existing wellbore and reservoir condit ions depending on the findings from the review and investigation. This allows the operator to plan an abandonment program that will satisfy the goal of making the well safe from future resources. PA design needs to be integrated in the planning of the well, and should be considered in a single budget. There are many factors which must be put into consideration in order to design an effective abandonment program , such as, the reservoir status, the integrity of the primary cement, hole cleaning and cement placement technique, the temperature and pressure of the well, the type of fluid in the well, the age of the well, the status of the cap rock.Fluid TypeDrilled wells produce fluids in liquid and gaseous form, wells which contain sour fluids i.e. sulphur rich would be expected to have accelerated corrosion rates and stress cracking depending on the age and wellbore construction, may impair the capacity to perform plug and abandonment, to mitigate this components which are corrosion r esistant can be used.Reservoir statusIn the design of PA, it is necessary to consider the reservoir status concerning its stability, the current pressure and temperature, the pressure at the initial stages of well development and the permeability of the reservoir both horizontal and vertical. With the information, plug and abandonment is then designed to withstand the pressure of the well after finally reach equilibrium.Cap rock StatusIt is also necessary to take into consideration the cap rock status i.e. is it still impermeable, has production activities induced fracture or has weathering taken effect.Placing the PlugsAfter the design and planning of the abandonment program, calculations must be made to determine the amount of cement required and the number of wiper plugs needed to separate the cement plugs from the rest of the fluids. The use of wiper plugs enables the formation of a stable platform on which the cement can be set. A wiper plug is placed in the wellbore, and then a predetermined quantity of cement slurry is pumped on top of it. Because of its weight, the slurry becomes a driving force. The slurry falls to the bottom of the hole, pushing the wiper plug ahead of it and forcing existing air and produced fluids back into the formation. Another plug and perhaps a bit more cement finish the job. In most wells, where there is one permaeble zone, one plug and one volume of cement and the surface plug are all that is needed. In other wells, additional wiper plugs, additional cement slurry, and probably spacers of water or drilling fluid are used consecutively until all of the air and fluid is forced out into the formation, there is zilch pressure on the pipe, and it is apparent from the returns that the whole wellbore is appropriately sealed. The quantity and kind of spacer fluid that can be used is dependent on individual state regulations. The remaining casing at the top of the well is cut off 3 ft below ground level.Along with this general methodo logy, each region stipulates its own abandonment methods based on field conditions and local regulations as can be seen in the following examples.PA steps in Los Angeles Basin in as follows 12The abandonment program is prepared with the support of a qualified engineer.A schematic showing the current mechanical condition of the well is prepared.The geologic condition of the well, including the structure, faulting, and producing zones is assessed.The depth and position of cement plug that will cover the producing zones and any potable water zones if applicable is measured and verified.Choice of whether to use perforating or cavity shots is made.The casing is pressure tested after setting cement retainers.The different equipment required for the job is determined and assembled.Estimate of abandonment/re-abandonment costs is made.In contrast, the steps followed for the Hutton tension-leg platform (TLP) in the EastShetland Basin of the North Sea involved three phases 13Perform standalone wireline intervention.Perform drilling unit intervention to set the cement plugs after the first wireline plug has been set.Cut casing 10 ft below the seabed and recover casing stumps.Another abandonment performed in the North Sea followed a different procedure 14A permanent cement primary barrier placed immediately above the reservoir.A secondary barrier placed as a back-up to the first barrier.A third barrier then placed near the surface to isolate shallow water-bearing sands.Severed completion tubing and recover wellhead.In Western Canada, the traditional abandonment procedure of wells with casing vent flows included the followingThe source of the casing vent flow is estimated or determined.If the source zone is shallower than the producing zone, the producing zone is abandoned.The source zone is perforated. Depending on the feed rate obtained at the estimated source depth, either a bradenhead or a retainer squeeze is performed.Retrievable tools are used as required.Typically, C lass G cement with Calcium Chloride and some fluid-loss control is utilized.The slurry is placed and a static squeeze pressure of 7 MPa is attempted.As needed, cement is drilled out and perforations are tested for seal.Often, several attempts are made in order to obtain a static squeeze pressure of 7 Mpa on surface or mitigate the casing vent flow.Techniques for AbandonmentThe techniques used for plugging and abandonment of drilled well worldwide are generally based on industry practise. These techniques includeRigCoil tubing unitRigless abandonmentCOIL TUBING UNITThe flexibility of coiled tubing has recently been tailored to develop rigless abandonment 15,16. This method, focuses on harmonizing all well services to accomplish utmost efficiency. Coiled-tubing unit fig. abandonment, like any other method, is more effective when appropriate cementing procedure is used from the kick-off of the well, from original zonal isolation with the primary cement sheath to plugging and abandonmen t. Early prevention of microannulus can help operators obtain a complete final seal.Five main criteria are recommended for optimal abandonment performance with coiled tubingMobility All equipment should be mounted on wheels for increased mobility.Self-sufficiency the service company provides nearly all activities.Dry location Fluids are not drained on or near the wellsite.Single operation the job is completed in one visit to the wellsite.Low mileage Move time is reduced and transport optimized for maximum efficiency in unit and camp moves.In this abandonment technique geological consideration like the type and condition of the reservoir and caprock formations are take into account. Permanent seals typically must be made between producing zones and at impermeable caprock formations. The condition and configuration of cement, perforations, tubulars, and downhole equipment are also considered.In addition to providing complete, permanent seals, the use of coiled-tubing can help increase abandonment efficiency. This method can provide the following advantagesIncreased tripping speedsIncreased rig-move efficiencyPrecise placement of cement plugs exact spotting of plugs at the interval of interest even in deep well as coil tubing can be reciprocated while pumping.Suitable for use on live wells it is possible to run CTU for remedial cement squeeze in live well as the wellbore can be controlled using the BOP and stripper assembly.No need to pull production tubing existing tubing and wellheads do not have to be removed to access the producing interval.Success using the coil tubing method has been recorded in Oman.REGULATORY REQUIREMENT FOR ABANDONMENT IN THE NORTHSEA AND USAIn the early years on the oil and gas industry, many wells were drilled and some were found to be dry and subsequently were abandoned without much consideration given to the manner in which the wells were abandoned. Sometimes tree stumps were thrown in the well as a means to plug it 3, during this er a the preservation of the groundwater, in general, the environment was not a major issue, and there was no defined regulation by the oil states or agencies. During the tail end of the 1930s different states and agencies in the US started establishing regulations, this defined requirement to ensure better well abandonment D.G Calvert, et al 1994.The number of regulation guiding well abandonment has risen along with the rising need to protect the environment in countries around the world. Today most countries have some form of regulation that addresses well abandonment requirement though these regulations are not uniform and differ from country to country and body to body, they provide a minimum standard for operating companies. For instance for the state of California in the United States of America, the different governing bodies have their own regulations which are as followsMinerals Management Services (MMS) The basic plugging requirements are found in 30 CFR 250.110 Subpart G.Dep artment of Conservation, Division of Oil Gas, and Geothermal Resources (DOC)The California Code of Regulations Title 14 Division 2, Chapter 4 beginning with Section 1745 focuses on the fundamental plugging requirements.California State Lands Commission (CSLC) The fundamental plugging requirements in the California Code of Regulations Title 2 Section 2128(q).Abandonment in the North SeaIn the North Sea as in US, the regulations differ. The different countries that make up the North Sea have their different governing bodies and subsequently different regulation. The law in the UK, Norway, Denmark and Holland holds the last operator of a well accountable and responsible to pay for all the cost incurred in permanently abandoning the well. It also holds them accountable for any leakage and any clean up that may be required in the event of a leak.Abandonment programs in the Northsea are designed to meet the guidelines for abandonment issued by the operation association or government. For the UK sector of the north sea, abandonment guidelines is issued by the UKOOA, similarly for the Norwegian sector the guidelines are contained in the NORSOK/PTIL D-010 standard and for the Netherlands it is contained in the Dutch Mining

The Role of African American Women in the Civil Rights Movement Essay

The African American Civil Rights causa was a series of protests in the United States southeastward from approximately 1955 through 1968. The overall goal of the Civil Rights Movement was to achieve racial equality before the law. Protest tactics were, overall, acts of civil disobedience. Rarely were they always intended to be violent. From sit-ins to boycotts to marches, the activists involved in the Civil Rights Movement were vigilant and dedicated to the cause without being aggressive. While African-American men seemed to be the leaders in this epic movement, African-American women played a huge role behind the scenes and in the protests. When discussing the American Civil Rights Movement, the names that seem to come up are those of prominent black men. While these men did enormous amounts of good during this movement, there are many women who seem to be poorly represented or credited. disgraceful women had a huge amount of influence during the Civil Rights Movement. While many of the protests and movements were led by men, the women were behind the scenes organizing and promoting and popularizing the ideas themselves. Many women were heavily involved in political organizations such as the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP), the Southern Christian Leadership group (SCLC), and many others. Even if they were not directly involved in organizations, however, many black women became informal leaders of movements and/or enthusiastic participants. A few historied example of black womens involvement are Citizenship Schools in South Carolina, the Montgomery Bus Boycott, And various womens involvement in political groups and organizations. peerless of the most influential women i... ...rica? Fannie Lou Hamer and the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party. Women in the Civil Rights Movement Trailblazers and Torchbearers, 1941-1965. By Vicki L. Crawford, Jacqueline Anne. Rouse, and Barbara Woods. Vol. 16. Brooklyn, NY Carlson Pub., 1990. 27-37. Print.Robinson, Jo Ann Gibson, and David J. Garrow. The Montgomery Bus Boycott and the Women Who Started It the Memoir of Jo Ann Gibson Robinson. Knoxville University of Tennessee, 1987. Print.Ransby, Barbara. Ella Baker and the Black Freedom Movement a Radical Democratic Vision. Chapel Hill University of North Carolina, 2003. Print.Standley, Anne. The Role of Black Women in the Civil Rights Movement. Women in the Civil Rights Movement Trailblazers and Torchbearers, 1941-1965. By Vicki L. Crawford, Jacqueline Anne. Rouse, and Barbara Woods. Brooklyn, NY Carlson Pub., 1990. 183-202. Print.