Peter Paul and Mary †Blowin in the Wind Essay

Peter, Paul, and Mary’s â€Å"Blowin’ in the Wind† is actually quite appealing to a mainstream audience, due to the simple arrangement and catchy hook. The accompaniment is easy to follow and understand, which makes it accessible to listeners that do not necessarily have a music education. Also, the tight vocal harmonies between two men and one woman are very interesting, because that sort of setting is not typical for popular music fare. Also, for being a folk song, the twang or accent is very subdued, which would possibly turn off some listeners who might be averse to folk tunes. There’s a good deal of vocal inflection in Mary’s voice, which pulls on the listener emotionally. For someone who does not particularly prefer folk music, the song is actually quite pleasant, and the strong lyrical content is definitely worth a second glance. Conversely, Bob Dylan’s version is more spoken, and contains a more rubato vocal performance. Also, the inclusion of the harmonica heightens the folk quality to the song. Moreover, Bob Dylan’s diction is much more â€Å"country,† with hard â€Å"R’s,† â€Å"jist† in the place of just, and â€Å"yes’n† in the place of yes. Those minor shifts create a rustic feeling, where Peter, Paul, and Mary’s diction was more refined, for the folk style. These two different takes on one song make a lasting difference, in terms of the presentation of the material. Peter, Paul, and Mary’s version of the single sold a phenomenal three hundred thousand copies in the first week of release. So, perhaps it is safe to say that folk songs can be popular, they just have to be presented in such a way that appeals to a wide audience, while still staying true to the roots. It is not an easy task to fulfill, but Peter, Paul and Mary have proved that it can be accomplished.

Defining Inclusion and Supporting Laws Essay

This term refers to bringing the support services to children with disabilities within their normal classroom setting. The article â€Å"Special Education Inclusion† mentions that inclusion commits to putting the child with disabilities in the regular classroom environment, so that they can benefit from being around their peers (Stout 2001). Inclusion is stated by Robert Fieldman as integration of all students, even those with the most severe disabilities, into regular classrooms and all other aspects of school and community life (2004). The success of these practices rides heavily upon the teachers and school being flexible with their instruction methods and only pulling the child out of class when necessary services cannot be given in the regular classroom. Here the students can be challenged, feel accepted and learn from the higher expectations placed on them. To answer the question of why it is healthy for the growth of an average child, there are multiple reasons learning interactions are beneficial. Stout then listed the findings in the study Success For All that were positive changes for the regular education students: Less fear and more awareness of human differences, growth in social cognition, improvement in belief in oneself, ability to support peers with disabilities, and caring friendships (2001). Emile Durkheim argues that â€Å"attachment and belonging are essential to human development and integrating children with disabilities into regular classrooms is desirable (Noll 2004)†. State laws that teachers need to know about is the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and the Public Law 94-142, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975. IDEA requires that assessments be made for young children experiencing developmental delays. This also included the expansion of Individualized Education Plan (IEP) meetings for more experts to be involved, hence the intervention made must be backed by research. This Act states says in summary that all children with disabilities in both private and public schools be put in separate facilities only if the severity of their disability will keep them from receiving a suitable education in the regular classroom. The Public Law  94-142 is explained by Lewis and Doorlag as the start to guaranteeing appropriate services to the maximum extent. For instance, each student with disabilities must have an IEP with the parent’s consent and will receive the least restrictive environment possible (Lewis and D oorlag, 2005). The children are often not going to be able to explain exactly what they are struggling with, so I will be informing these teachers about what to watch for. At this point they will be getting a handout from Interagency Network for Education in Emergencies that covers visual, auditory, and intellectual disability symptoms and strategies. This attached handout explains warning signs, such as sensitivity to light and squinting when there are visual difficulties, therefore seat them away from the glare or window and read aloud what is written (even largely) on the board. If the student has not come near the level of development of their age mates, then seek possible assessment for intellectual difficulty. The classroom could be adapted by getting a volunteer to help with giving extra time and instructions. If a child is struggling with hearing, he may have trouble following directions or be uninvolved; hence, seat the student where they can be near teacher and peers to see how they are responding and use visual aids in lessons (INEE 2005). In Rick Lavoie’s article, Early Warning Signs of Disabilities, he gave the  following list of areas that are commonly affected: l) Spoken language: delays, disorders, and deviations in listening and speaking 2) Written language: difficulties with reading, writing and spelling 3) Arithmetic: difficulty in performing arithmetic operations or in basic concepts 4) Reasoning: slower processing and organizing thoughts 5) Memory: challenges in remembering information and instructions Strategies Going into this situation is inevitable, yet how teachers deal with it can make everyone succeed†¦. As I address the preschool teachers about inclusion, I intend for them to leave being motivated and prepared for inclusive situations. Hence, I am going to give them strategies and preparation, in handouts, for dealing with children who have disabilities; many of these suggestions could be brought up in a child’s IEP meeting. Peer tutoring can happen easily and be incredibly effective way to promote social acceptance of special education students. General education students will gain experience by working with them, while the special needs student gets a fresh status, increased acceptance, occasion for socializing, all while practicing academics (Lewis and Doorlag, 2005). Sitting up front, next to a role model student can be very helpful as they can undertake assignments with a little nudge of help. Along the same lines, if the IEP allows it, volunteer tutors and professional aids are also beneficial to the need for one-on-one assistance in class. Presentation of lessons has to be done to suit various learning styles. Illustrate things for visual, kinesthetic, and auditory learners by using things like overheads, Power point, group skits, video clips, demonstrations, artwork, poems and anything else where you can creatively engage the students. Along these same lines, it would be best to find out the learning styles of all of the students. Hence, when you place them in groups or seek to help the students with disabilities, it will be in a style that reaches their individual needs. Learning disabilities are a widespread part of inclusion, because three to five percent of all children might have ADHD alone (Slavin 2003). Slavin’s section about Teaching Students with Learning Disabilities outlines particular ways to be effective. Prevention is encouraged by the â€Å"High-quality early childhood programs and primary grades teaching  significantly reduce the number of children identified with learning disabilities† (Slavin 2003, p. 420). He goes on to explain that positive feedback regarding improvement in learning helps them do better. It helps to split up large assignments into intermediate goals, so that they can receive feedback as they go along and accomplish it correctly. Board games can be used to promote social growth of the learning disabled student with their peers; these fun activities can be effective builders of academic skills. (Lavoie, n.d.). Misbehaviors often root from frustrations, hence learning-disabled students often â€Å"respond well to a rapid pace of instruction with much variety and many opportunities to participate† (Slavin, 2003, pg. 421). As mentioned above, many disabilities result in behavior issues that need to be addressed in positive reinforcement. Begin by defining suitable behavior, give genuine approval, and be consistent with reinforcements. Physical and sensory impairments need strategies that regular teachers can use in mainstreaming classrooms. For visual impairments, help the student form a set-up of the classroom by exploration, enlarge text, and bring them a larger desk for the Braille writer (Lewis and Doorlag 2006). While for hearing impairments, the child should be where they can see the teacher and the students, away from background noise, and the teacher should be checking for understanding of the material. References 1. Disability Rights Commission (2005) DRC Design and Technology by Reading Room. http://www.drc-gb.org/citizenship/talkvideos/index.asp. 2. Feldman, Robert S. (2004). Childhood Development (3rd Edition). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education. 3. Hagberg, Laurie. (1998). http://adhd.kids.tripod.com/adhd.html. â€Å"Outside the Box: Lessons I’ve Learned†. 4. Interagency Network for Education in Emergencies (INEE). (2002 – 2005). â€Å"Inclusive Education of Children at Risk†. http://www.ineesite.org/inclusion/disabled.asp. 5. Lavoie, Rick.† The Teacher’s Role in Developing Social Skills†. http://www.ricklavoie.com/articles.html. 6. Lewis and Doorlag. (2006). Teaching Special Students in General Education Classrooms. Pearson Education, Inc. New Jersey. 7. Noll, James (2004). Taking Sides (12th Edition). Guilford, Conn. McGraw-Hill/Dushkin. 8. Special Education. (2004). http://www.pacificnet.net/~mandel/SpecialEducation.html

Interview and National Political Research Paper

Interview and National Political - Research Paper Example National policy of a country is in line with its manifesto and its aspirations towards the global relationship with outside world. National policy serves in multiple ways; it allows protecting the sovereignty of the state, presenting the state’s ideology and most importantly enables engaging into dialogue and mediation with outside world for the betterment of its economic, social and political condition. Syria is one similar country that has a clearly defined national policy and foreign policy that allows it engaging into global relations. Based on its geo strategic importance Syria holds significance for number of reasons. These reasons stretch beyond geographic, social, political factors. It has gained importance in recent times due to the ongoing events in the region. The region in itself is of high importance considering the neighboring countries and the natural location. Keeping the global impact in view, the Arab Spring that took off from Tunisia, was one similar event w hich engulfed fire in the neighboring countries. The aim of Arab spring was to eliminate the status quo. Since Syria also fell in the line of fire courtesy Bashar Al Asad’s status quo existence, the fire of spring penetrated deep into Syrian towns and cities; triggering a civil war. The objective of this paper is to get a familiarity with the international politics and the world scenario. This is done through an interview conducting. The interview will allow understanding different facets of a research study along with global politics and geography comprehension. The paper is divided into three major sections, the first part deals with the geographic details of Syria, the second gives an insight into the form of government in place, while the third entails Syria’s relationship with United States of America. Brief overview of the country Syria is located in the Western Part of Asia. It is a Muslim populace country with different percentages of Shiite and Sunni followers amongst them. Other nations within Syria include Christians, Kurds and some traces of Turks are also visible in the country. Geographic location is of high importance and thereby makes it center of attention in the entire world. It is in the vicinity that includes Lebanon, Israel, and Turkey as its neighboring countries and their borders are mutually shared. Mediterranean Sea lies to its West and adds another point of importance on strategic front to its location. It also shares border with Jordan and Iraq making it one of the most entangled and attached country with other regional states. Modern day existence: The modern day existence stretches back to the end of World War 1 when the mandate system was introduced for the first time under the auspices of League of Nations. Syria was given under direct protection and guidance of France(Commins, 111). This was as a result of abolishing of Ottoman Empire. The second resurrection of Syria took place in 1946 (Darke , 12) right after Fir st World War when a sovereign republic came into existence. The size of Syria is 186,745 (square kilo meter). The total population of Syria is around 22 million. The characteristic of Syrian population is a multi cultural outlook consisting of Muslims and Christians in small amount. Syrian people are largely hospitable; they are fond of good food, traveling, outings in the local towns and cities. Their ways are depictive of Arabian culture, music is part of their culture, and so is art. Amongst the Muslims that constitute around 95

Business Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words - 2

Business Law - Essay Example This paper shall consider different authorities on the subject matter in order to arrive at a scholarly appraisal of the subject matter. According to section 181 of the Corporations Act, â€Å"a director or other officer of a corporation must exercise their power and discharge their duties in good faith in the best interest of the corporation and for a proper use†. Violations of this provision make a director civilly and criminally liable. For directors who act dishonestly and recklessly, criminal liability may be forthcoming (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 1997). The directors’ duty is to avoid conflicts of duty and interest and therefore, he must not allow conflicts of interest to compromise his position in the company. Sections 191-195 of the Corporations Act set forth obligations for directors to not allow conflicts of interest to arise from his actions. Based on these provisions, directors are therefore called on to notify the board of directors when there are instances of personal interest which have a bearing on the company activities and affairs (Panoramic Resources, 200 8). Section 195 of the Corporations Law specifies that a director of a public company cannot be present during a voting or board meeting where the members are deliberating an issue where he is an essential person of interest. He may however be present if the other directors pass a resolution allowing him to be present and to vote; and if the ASIC orders a specific order on the issue (Corporations Law, 2001). The responsibilities in the section cover board meetings, and meetings of committees of the board. This is to be applied even if the committee would not have any bearing on the affairs of the company. Committees under advisory capacities are therefore part of the prohibition (Tomasic, et.al., 2002). In evaluating the terms under which

Essay about Church Growth Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

About Church Growth - Essay Example For the present action plan therefore, a combination of ideas and thought from both sides of the argument are being considered. In its totality therefore, this is going to be an action plan on how to map up ways of increasing the physical quantum of the church’s membership and there after find means of equipping the spiritual content of the members who are won into the church. This shall be done by following the planning process steps to come up with a comprehensive way of guaranteeing a paper-work church growth formula. Planning Processes Step 1: Purpose and Goal Setting The very first step is for the church to have a purpose and set out goals on what it wants to achieve. Already, it has been indicated that as far as church growth is concerned, there are two major schools of thoughts as to what church growth constitutes. For this reason, it is important that the church comes clear on which of the two ways it wants to pursue as it sets out its purpose and goal. The goal settin g ought to have some key conventional qualities. For instance the goals ought to be specific, time bound, achievable, relevant and measurable. The purpose should also have some key features such as the fact that it should have alternatives and monitoring and evaluation components. Giving the background of the church therefore, there could be a purpose and goal that seeks to increase the membership of the church by one hundred (100) souls in three (3) months and leading the new members through various spiritual activities that will help them become born-again Christians after two months of joining the church. Step 2: Surveying After the purpose and goals have been set, the way will be paved for surveying to take place. Surveying will particularly involve the act of going to the grounds to measure the real ‘size’ of the job at hand. By size, reference is being made to the length of work that will be involved should the action plan be eventually implemented (Bunzel, 2002). The surveying should therefore have several considerations that include the amount of money needed to carry out a perfect job, the scope of places to go, the kind of people to approach, the schemes and strategies to use for the soul winning exercise and the expected feedback that will result from the eventual work. Timing should also be another key aspect of the surveillance. This is because when the church implements its action plan within a very conducive time frame, there are several conditions within the timing that can affect the results. In a typical example, it is common knowledge that during occasions like Easter, 31st Night and Christmas, a lot of people become very religious. Because of this, they respond to church activities more quickly. Such a time would therefore be a better timing season to implement the church’s plan. Step 3: Planning Undoubtedly, the best time to go about planning for the church growth concept is after the surveying is complete. This is beca use the surveying will come out with tangible results and responses on the actual steps that need to be taken in the course of the implementation of the action plan. At the planning stage therefore, the church growth team will be dealing with a more realistic approach to getting the action plan underway. For

Health and disease relation to cigarette smoking Essay

Health and disease relation to cigarette smoking - Essay Example port identify that â€Å"among men who smoke cigarettes the death rate from cancer of the lung was 1,000 percent higher than among nonsmokers† and that â€Å"the incidence of coronary artery disease, the leading cause of death in the United States, was 70 percent higher among smokers† (Brandt 494). Brandt points out how the clash between traditional American libertarian ethic and communitarian ethic has influenced debates on cigarette smoking in the nation. The author also provides an elaborate discussion on accountability for tobacco induced diseases and finally concludes that more attention should be paid to the social responsibility theory for addressing the issue. Proponents of cigarette smoking emphasize on traditional American libertarian ethic which stress on individual freedom and individual decisions. As such they regard governmental interference on smoking behavior as an â€Å"unjustifiable intrusion into individual decisions† (Brandt 500). They also hold that rather than regulating the smoking behavior of the public government’s duty is only to inform them of its potential dangers. On the other hand, communitarian ethic holds that exposure to other peoples cigarette smoke cause serious health problems to non-smokers in the community. Various researches on the risks of side stream smoke and the addictive nature of cigarettes also emphasize the need to delegitimize and stigmatize cigarette smoking. The communitarian ethic thus views smoking as a moral issue as its health effects on the non-smoking community are quite dangerous. This tension between traditional American libertarian ethic and communitarian ethic on cigarette smoking raises a number of questions on who should shoulder the responsibility of the risks associated with cigarette smoking. While many attribute this responsibility to the tobacco industry there are others who stress on governmental accountability. The first Surgeon Generals Report emphasizes on governmental intervention and

Religion Against Unjust Amirs Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Religion Against Unjust Amirs - Essay Example According to Muslim traditional beliefs, Prophet Mohammed was instrumental in converting most of the Bedouins to Islam. The Bedouin warriors form the nucleus of the Muslim armies that repeatedly invaded Middle East and North Africa during the 7th century and later on. Both Bedouins and sedentary people are natural groups. Name any human group living in any geographical area; they need basic necessities of life and for this objective they continuously challenge the vicissitudes of nature. Bedouins are one of the grittiest tribes to make a living in the inhospitable conditions in the deserts, and yet they maintain the cultural traditions, social organizations that are the hallmarks of their tribes. Their lifestyles often change as per the changing conditions of the nature and they have perfected the art of adjusting to those conditions. Their priority is to meet the simple necessities of life first, but they are not averse to enjoy other conveniences and luxuries of life. Agriculture is the mainstay of the Bedouin tribes and all other ancillary activities are related to land and cultivation. Vegetables, grains (for private consumption as well as for trade barter), animal husbandry, bee-keeping and breeding silkworms for getting silk for the related products, are some other vocations which they pursue steadily. With the availability of vast tracts of lands, it is possible for the Bedouin tribes to conduct such activities. As such their movements remain restricted to the deserts and their contact with the outside world is hardly worth mentioning. Ibn Khaldun (2012) writes, â€Å"Their social organization and co-operation for the needs of life and civilization, such as food, shelter, and warmth, do not take them beyond the bare subsistence level, because of their inability (to provide) for anything beyond those (things)† (p.161). Simplicity is the self-imposed virtue with

Classical Mythology Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Classical Mythology - Research Paper Example .., University of..., [Address] Contact: Abstract The present essay deals with various modes of portrayal of the character of Ancient Greek goddess, Aphrodite, in belles-lettres (fiction) in the course of progressive development of literature. It will be argued that the changes in perception of Aphrodite’s image have been connected with the gradual shifts from mythological through religious to modern philosophical outlook, and that in different epochs the character of Aphrodite was used to convey radically different discursive meanings. Keywords: history of literature, mythology, Ancient literature The Portrayal of Aphrodite in Literary Works since the Ancient Times till Post-Modernity Introduction There exist different interpretations of myths in the context of literary works, with Ruthven (1976) presenting an especially coherent view of the various aspects of myth in literature. The purpose of the present study will be to provide a complex analysis of changes in representati on of Aphrodite, the Ancient Greek goddess of love, sexuality and beauty, in literature. The temporal boundaries of the study extend all across the historical spectrum, with the representations of Aphrodite in Ancient, Medieval, Renaissance and Baroque literature being expounded and compared. Consequently, the main body of the essay will be constructed in accordance with chronological order. The main purpose of the present study is to show the connection between evolution in perception of Aphrodite as a literary character and the changes in general outlook of writers, and the larger society as well. Therefore it should be noted that in order to understand the image of Aphrodite the connection between literature, mythology and religion needs to be assumed. Interpretation of the Image of Aphrodite in Ancient Literature The perception of character of Aphrodite in the period of antiquity was invariably tied to the mythological and broadly religious attributes and functions, which were a ssociated with this goddess. The very tale of her birth was closely connected with the concept of primal, chthonic powers that symbolized the notion of life force. For instance, according to Hesiod (Theog., 189-206), Aphrodite was born out of the seed of Uranus, when the latter was gelded by his son, Cronus, in a bid for power. When the seed of Uranus fell into the sea, it came into contact with the primal force of the Earth and from this Aphrodite was born. Her traditional epithet, Anadyomene (â€Å"the one rising from the sea†), indicates that the connection between the concepts of primal life force and carnal love among humans was keenly felt by the Ancient Greeks of Hesiodean period. The association between the image of Aphrodite and the concept of primal life force in Hesiodean theogony is further substantiated by Hesiod’s mentioning that the Erynies and Gigantes were born at the same time as Aphrodite, albeit out of Uranus’s blood, not seed. This would mea n that initially Aphrodite was viewed as one of the oldest powers in the universum, rather than a mere progeny of Zeus. Further traces of archaic vision of Aphrodite’s nature and powers are enhanced by Hesiod’s mention of Aphrodite’s connection with Erotos, initially an ancient deity spawned by Chaos (Theog., 116). Erotos is later mentioned as a progeny of Aphrodite (Theog., 934), finally being depicted as a child-like god of love, rather than a potent chthonic entity. This reading of the image of Aphr

Summary of Michelle Alexander argument relative to origin of Jim Crow Essay

Summary of Michelle Alexander argument relative to origin of Jim Crow - Essay Example As a result, they were constrained to second grade jobs and opportunities such as being slaves or performing menial jobs for the whites. It follows that the form of segregation postulated and fronted took the holistic approach such that the places where the African-Americans lived was supposed to be of lower cadre or class comparative to the other white neighborhoods. Thus, it goes without saying that the limited employment opportunities of the African-Americans limited their economic empowerment and as a result they lived in poverty. This is so due to the fact that they were set to occupy low paying jobs which implies that their economic power was greatly reduced and as a result they lived poor lives. Accordingly, the current criminal justice dispensation acts as a racial tool to discriminate and control the African-Americans if the empirical evidence and statistics is anything to go by. It is critical to note and mention that the speaker in the New Jim Crow, Michelle Alexander outlines that Blacks get arrested for equal or lesser crimes as their white counterparts. For instance, she mentions that the â€Å"blacks are arrested for non-violent often drug related offence, the vary sorts that occur with roughly equal frequency in the middle class white community or on college campuses.† Equally important is that the kind of treatment that the African-Americans are subjected to in prison is second class.

Leading in Modern Organisations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Leading in Modern Organisations - Essay Example al leaders, for instance, operate within the cultures of their organisations conforming to current standards, regulations, and guidelines; on the other hand, transformational leaders transform their culture by learning it and afterward restructuring it with a fresh goal and a transformation of its collective norms, beliefs, and principles. Successful organisations nowadays necessitate leaders’ strategic and calculated judgment, and ability to develop a culture. Strategic judgment facilitates the formation and growth of an image of an organisation’s prospect. The goal can materialize and progress as the leader builds a culture that is committed to strengthening that goal (Kouzes & Posner 2007). The organisational culture is the context within which the goal occurs. Consequently, the goal may establish as well the features of the organisational culture. Transformational leaders have been distinguished by independent traits referred to as transformational leadershipâ€℠¢s 4 Is (Northouse 2010). These four elements involve (1) individualised consideration, (2) intellectual stimulation, (3) inspirational motivation, and (4) idealised influence (Northouse 2010, 176-180). Transformational leaders incorporate ingenious thinking, determination and force, perception and understanding into the necessities of other people to build the foundation for a strategy-oriented culture for their organisations. On the contrary, transactional leaders are distinguished by conditional incentive (Bass 1990). Basically, transactional leaders facilitate transactions or arrangements with their subordinates, specifying what the subordinates will gain if they perform well or commit mistakes. They operate within the current culture, orienting their judgments and behaviours based on the existing... This essay stresses that the ideas of a leader thus serve an integral function in building not just the prospect for him/herself, but also the future for the organisation. Organisational culture emerges mostly from its leadership at the same time as organisational culture can also influence the growth of its leadership. Successful organisations nowadays necessitate leaders’ strategic and calculated judgment, and ability to develop a culture. Strategic judgment facilitates the formation and growth of an image of an organisation’s prospect. This paper makes a conclusion that leading modern organisations requires much more than the ability to raise positive thoughts and feelings among followers, even though this is an integral component. Moreover, it is much more than guiding the organisation, even though this, as well, is important. While the practices or outcomes demanded of organisations become more flexible and less predetermined, leadership turns out to be more and more complicated because another point of reference or approach is needed. Leaders of modern organisations should be focused on forming and steering dynamic mechanisms of measures, judgments, and actions. The training of leaders who have the required abilities may be a challenging mission, but still achievable. What seems to be needed is acknowledgment of leadership’s organisational function and structure of training and development programmes purposely adjusted to that function.

HIS 135 Entire Course Essay Example for Free

HIS 135 Entire Course Essay In this archive file of HIS 135 Entire Course you will find the next documents:HIS-135-Assignment-Cold-War-Ideology-and-Policies. docHIS-135-Assignment-The-Vietnam-War. docHIS-135-Capstone-CheckPoint-End-of-the-Cold-War. docHIS-135-CheckPoint-Comparing-KennedyG History General History ASHFORD HIS 204 American History Since 1865 If dragging yourself out of bed at 6:00 am is impossible, dont torture yourself with 7:00 am classes. Most schools offer classes in a wide range of time slots. Take advantage of the classes later in the day and in the evening if you arent a morning person. You will be more likely to go and will get more out of the course. In this archive file of HIS 135 Entire Course you will find the next documents:HIS-135-Assignment-Cold-War-Ideology-and-Policies. docHIS-135-Assignment-The-Vietnam-War. docHIS-135-Capstone-CheckPoint-End-of-the-Cold-War. docHIS-135-CheckPoint-Comparing-KennedyG History General History ASHFORD HIS 204 American History Since 1865 If dragging yourself out of bed at 6:00 am is impossible, dont torture yourself with 7:00 am classes. Most schools offer classes in a wide range of time slots. Take advantage of the classes later in the day and in the evening if you arent a morning person. You will be more likely to go and will get more out of the course. In this archive file of HIS 135 Entire Course you will find the next documents:HIS-135-Assignment-Cold-War-Ideology-and-Policies. docHIS-135-Assignment-The-Vietnam-War. docHIS-135-Capstone-CheckPoint-End-of-the-Cold-War. docHIS-135-CheckPoint-Comparing-KennedyG History General History ASHFORD HIS 204 American History Since 1865 If dragging yourself out of bed at 6:00 am is impossible, dont torture yourself with 7:00 am classes. Most schools offer classes in a wide range of time slots. Take advantage of the classes later in the day a Follow the link Now for full guide https://bitly. com/1wySlYb If dragging yourself out of bed at 6:00 am is impossible, dont torture yourself with 7:00 am classes. Most schools offer classes in a wide range of time slots. Take advantage of the classes later in the day and in the evening if you arent a morning person. You will be more likely to go and will get more out of the course. History General History ASHFORD HIS 204 American History Since 1865.

Fingerprints Essay Example for Free

Fingerprints Essay My science fair project is called â€Å"Are Fingerprints Inherited?† I will try and determine if fingerprint patterns from biological siblings are inherited however, I will also have control so that I can compare the data. I am interested in finding the results of this because of me having an half brother and sister. I will use a table to take fingerprints and next to each fingerprint is a code so I don’t use names on the same page as the actual prints. Hypothesis My hypothesis is that I think these fingerprint patterns will be inherited. I believe this because I have learned about heredity and genetics in school. Hair color, eye color and skin color all have to do with heredity and genetics. It has interested me if fingerprints are inherited because fingerprints can also be a form of identification. If they are inherited, it could determine what the child’s fingerprints could be. Method and Procedures For this science experiment. I used the following, an ink pad, coded forms for fingerprints (biological and non-biological) consent forms that will keep the name and signature separate from the actual prints, folder for organizing purposes, human subjects ( biological and non-biological and all age groups) wipes for cleaning fingers, a magnifying glass , and research information to determine the three fingerprints patterns. I will classify each fingerprint pattern into one of three groups. The whorl, loop, and arch patterns. I will analyze the data carefully and make a percentage for each group. I will the compare the two percentages. Then, I will have my results. Discussion Before I started the experiment, I thought there would be a higher number of the same patterns of biological fingerprints. But my results showed me something different. You can also have error when doing experiments. I could have misread the fingerprints or the fingerprints could have been unable to read clearly. If I restarted the project, I would do things differently. I would have the Mom and Dad fingerprint and compared it to their child fingerprint. Conclusion I found the my results for biological and non-biological siblings were the same. Forty-nine percent of biological and non-biological siblings had the same fingerprint patterns. Fifty-one percent of non-biological and biological siblings had different fingerprints patterns. I never would have thought that my results would be the same. I am also surprised that fifty-one percent of biological siblings were different.

Pharmacy is a health profession

Pharmacy is a health profession Chapter 1 The word is derived from the Greek word pharmakon meaning drug or medicine and has been used since the 15th and 17th centuries 1. Pharmacy is a health profession that combines the health sciences with the chemical sciences. It ensures the safe and effective use of pharmaceutical drugs. Pharmacy practice includes modern services that are related to health care: clinical services, providing drug information and reviewing medications for safety and efficacy purposes 1. 1.1.1 The various disciplines of Pharmacy Pharmacy can be divided into three major disciplines: a) Pharmaceutics b) Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy c) Pharmacy Practice Pharmacology is often considered to be a fourth discipline but is not specific to pharmacy, even though it is essential. The boundaries between the different disciplines and other sciences like biochemistry are not clear cut. Hence, research work from the various disciplines is often done concurrently 2. 1 The Hormone Shop LLC. The History of Pharmaceutical Compunding. [home page on the Internet]. 2010 [cited 2010 Oct 10]. Available from: http://www.thehormoneshop.com/historyofcompoundingpharmacy.htm 2 Dayanada Sagar College of Pharmacy, Bangalore, India. History of Pharmacy. [home page on the Internet]. 2008 [cited 2010 Oct 10]. Available from: http://www.dscpharmacy.org/pharmacy.php 1.1.2 The Pharmacist and Community Pharmacy Pharmacists are skilled and highly-trained health care professionals who ensure optimal health outcomes for their patients. In the community pharmacy, the pharmacist has various roles and these include amongst others (Azzopardi, 2010): a) the procurement of medications that are suitable for human consumption b) ensuring the appropriate conditions for the storage of medicines c) ensuring the appropriate and safe disposal of expired medicines d) dispensing of medications that are either on a prescription, or pharmacist-recommended or asked for directly by the patient e) point-of-care testing f) offering general medical advice without the need of a prior appointment. The practice of community pharmacy varies between countries. Nevertheless, the basic functions and responsibilities are the same. A community pharmacist builds a special relationship with the clients, especially the regular ones. Hence, communication skills are of major importance. The pharmacist finds him / herself comforting and hearing out the patient when necessary, and is expected to be understanding and also a good listener. 1.2 History of Pharmacy The first pharmacies, apothecaries as they were formerly known, were founded in the Middle Ages in Baghdad. The first one was founded in the year 754 AD by Muslim pharmacists during the Islamic Golden Age 2. During the 11th century, community pharmacies were established in southern France and southern Italy. In 1240, Emperor Frederick II issued a decree the medical profession was to be separated from the pharmacy profession. Pharmacy practice was to be supervised so that drugs of a suitable quality would be prepared and produced (Azzopardi, 2010). The history of pharmacy can be classified into three stages: a) compounding and dispensing b) clinical pharmacy c) pharmaceutical care. Originally, the pharmacists had to prepare and dispense medicines so they had to excel at compounding. The community pharmacist was therefore highly esteemed because the preparation of medicines was greatly valued in society. In fact, at that time, the pharmacists and other professionals such as lawyers, medical doctors and parish priests were the leaders in the community. As time passed, newly discovered drugs became more dangerous and potent so they started being prepared by manufacturing companies. The pharmacists role was only to dispense these drugs (Al-Shaqha, Zairi, 2001). 2 Dayanada Sagar College of Pharmacy, Bangalore, India. History of Pharmacy. [home page on the Internet]. 2008 [cited 2010 Oct 10]. Available from: http://www.dscpharmacy.org/pharmacy.php Pharmacists moved to clinical practice about 25 years ago. The original concept of clinical pharmacy services was based on the fact that pharmacists ought to use their professional knowledge to ensure the appropriate and safe use of drugs in patients. As a result, several pharmacists nowadays work in hospitals, nursing homes and some ambulatory clinics. Problems remained within the drug-use-system despite the advances made in clinical pharmacy and documenting and recognising these problems has led to the concept of pharmaceutical care becoming the new basis for pharmacy practice (Al-Shaqha, Zairi, 2001). 1.2.1 History of pharmacy in Malta 1.2.1.1 History of pharmacy in Malta from the late 15th century until the arrival of the Knights of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem in 1530 Before 1500, the pharmacists in Malta were almost all Sicilian. In the early 15th century, pharmacists were employed either by the Universita or by the Hospital of Santo Spirito. Mastru Salvatore Passa is the first documented pharmacist in Malta who practised in Mdina and the Hospital of Santo Spirito in Rabat from 1450 to 1475. The medicines prescribed in those days were mainly herbal. During this period, Passa often travelled to Sicily due to his work, presumably to import medicinal herbs as many herbs did not form part of the local flora (Borg, 1998). 1.2.1.2 Pharmacy under the Knights of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem The Knights of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem arrived in Malta on the 26th October, 1530 and they applied their knowledge of pharmacy to the practice in Malta. A Holy Infirmary in Birgu was built and the Greek pharmacist, Giacomo Gualterio, who had accompanied the Order to Malta was the apothecary (Borg, 1998). Grand Master Nicholas Cottoner established the School of Anatomy and Surgery at the Holy Infirmary in 1676. It is very probable that a Pharmacy course was established in the school (Borg, 1998). Under the Knights, the practice of pharmacy in Malta changed gradually, but continuously, occurring in a similar way to that in Europe. However, extemporaneous preparations remained the same from the times of Mastru Salvatore Passa because the enlargement of the pharmaceutical industry still had to occur (Borg, 1998). 1.2.1.3 Pharmacy under the French and British colonies The French arrived in Malta in 1798. There were no more than 32 pharmacies under their dominion, each one having an average clientele of 3,000 patients. No changes were made to the laws governing the practice of pharmacy under the French. Hence, the daily activities of the pharmacists were identical to those of under the Knights. The laws established by the Knights of the Order of St. John remained in force until 1900. In their stay in Malta, which lasted for about one hundred years, the British left their mark on the pharmacy profession. The use of the English language, the names of pharmacies pertaining to Britain or England and the consulting room in the pharmacy are all such examples (Borg, 1998). 1.2.1.4 Pharmacy in the 20th century The Medical and Kindred Professions Ordinance of the Laws of Malta, governs pharmacy laws. This was enacted in 1900 as the laws governing the profession at that time had become outdated and needed restructuring. A legislation that allowed pharmacists to dispense certain medicaments without a prescription was enacted in October 1955 and on the 12th October 1955, a list of these substances was published in the Malta Government Gazette (Borg, 1998). The Malta Chamber of Pharmacists was founded in 1900 in order to protect the common interests of the pharmacists and also to maintain the professions dignity. Hence, the professions standards were raised by enabling the profession to keep abreast of the changes that were occurring internationally (Borg, 1998). In April 1961, an Extraordinary General Meeting was held by the Chamber to discuss the issue of forming a Trade Union that would represent pharmacists; all 33 pharmacists present agreed that this was necessary. One of the Unions objectives, among others, was to improve the conditions under which the profession was exercised and to promote the interests of pharmacists. The Pharmacy Board was set up in 1968 and this was the greatest achievement of the Chamber and Union. The Union worked very closely with the Chamber and in 1979 they formed one association, i.e. the Chamber of Pharmacists Trade Union. This association worked very hard and it affected the current state of the profession and also the legislation governing the practice of pharmacy (Borg, 1998). In 1984, after several meetings with the Chamber, it was finally decided that new pharmacies ought to be owned by pharmacists and that before granting new permits, the population ratio has to be taken into consideration (Borg, 1998). Patients could get their free medications from the Central Hospital Dispensary and Government Dispensaries throughout the first fifty years of the 20th century. The latter could be found in most villages around Malta. In 1954, the Central Hospital at Floriana was turned into the Headquarters of The Malta Police Force as by the late 1940s, St. Lukes Hospital became Maltas General Hospital. Hence, the Out-Patient Dispensary of St. Lukes Hospital became the Central Government Dispensary (Borg, 1998). Pharmamed, the first local pharmaceutical enterprise, was founded in 1974. This gave rise to several job opportunities in the industrial field, besides enhancing Maltas image abroad. In 1995, as a result of strong and consistent negotiations and representations by the Maltese Chamber of Pharmacists, there was the appointment of the first director of the Government Pharmaceutical Services (GPS). This was part of the reform of the GPS and the career progression of pharmacists in Government service. It was concluded in 1998 in agreement with the Ministry of Health on the full implementation of the GPS reform. 1.2.1.5 Pharmacy in the 21st century In June 2007, Mater Dei Hospital replaced St. Lukes Hospital as the national hospital of Malta. The last of the personnel migrated to Mater Dei by November of that year. Hence, the main Government Dispensary was moved to Mater Dei as well 3. In 2008, the much awaited and debated Scheme of the Pharmacy of Your Choice (POYC) was introduced. This Scheme enables the people to have an easier and more comfortable access to the medicaments that are given for free by the Government. 3 Mater Dei Hospital Malta. [homepage on the Internet]. 2009 [cited 2010 Oct 23]. Available from: http://malta.cc/health-care/mater-dei-hospital-malta/ Thus the service that was previously provided for by the village Health Centre Dispensaries was transferred to the community pharmacies. The patients chose the pharmacy of their choice. The initial stages of the POYC Scheme do not envisage any changes in the reimbursement system. Therefore, patients who are entitled to take free medication will continue to do so; there is no co-payment (Grima IC). Until January 2011, the POYC Scheme had spread to 96 Maltese community pharmacies and to 17 community pharmacies in Gozo. Following the introduction of the Scheme, the village Health Centre Dispensaries where the Scheme was initiated, were closed down after sufficient time had elapsed. Over the past few years, the number of local pharmaceutical manufacturing companies has dramatically increased. So has the number of locally licensed pharmaceutical wholesalers who import medications from EU countries. There are more pharmaceutical products registered with the local Medicines Authority. This has had a positive impact on both the private and public pharmaceutical sectors due to the availability of more different therapeutic classes of medicines and more medicines that fall within the same therapeutic class (Grima IC). Recently, the number of generic medicinals in the private sector has also increased considerably. Nowadays, a pharmacist can substitute a branded prescribed medicinal with a generic product that is cheaper for the patient (Bugeja, 2007). Accession into the European Union in May 2004 had a great impact on the medicines in Malta, especially with regards to their availability. Some medicines that were previously available were not registered due to the high registration costs. Hence, EU accession improved the quality of medicines. On the other hand, it had a negative impact on their availability and affordability (Bugeja, 2008). The prices of medicines in Malta increased considerably after EU accession in 2004. In fact, according to studies carried out, the Maltese are paying about 40% more than the average price for medicinal products in the European Union 4. In July 2010, the Parliamentary Secretary, Chris Said, announced reductions in prices of 62 medicines. Some of these reductions were to be implemented immediately whereas with others, when stocks were sold out. Many medicines in Malta are overpriced when compared to other EU countries, so this was a step in the right direction 5,6. 1.3 Pharmaceutical Care In 1990, Hepler and Strand looked at the responsibilities of the pharmacist and at pharmacy services in a new way. They applied the term pharmaceutical care and over the years pharmacists have endeavoured to develop pharmaceutical care practices (Foppe, Schulz 2006). According to Hepler and Strand (1990): 4 Maltastar. The price of medicines in Malta under European Commission scrutiny. [homepage on the Internet]. 2010 [cited 2010 Oct 27]. Available from: http://www.maltastar.com/pages/rl/ms10dart.asp?a=11804 5 Xuereb M. Makers cut prices of 62 medicines. Times of Malta [serial on the Internet]. 2010 [cited 2010 Oct 27]. Available from: http://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20100703/local/makers-cut-prices-of-62-medicines 6 Vella Matthew. Medicine importers agree to cuts in prices of up to 67%. MaltaToday [serial on the Internet]. 2010 [cited 2010 Oct 27]. Available from: http://www.maltatoday.com.mt/news/medicines/medicine-importers-agree-to-cuts-in-prices-of-up-to-6 Pharmaceutical care is the responsible provision of drug therapy for the purpose of achieving definite outcomes that improve a patients quality of life. These outcomes are (1) cure of a disease, (2) elimination or reduction of a patients symptomatology, (3) arresting or slowing of a disease process, or (4) preventing a disease or symptomatology. In their definition of pharmaceutical care, Hepler and Strand looked at the patients quality of life (Strand et al, 1991). Pharmaceutical care involves a pharmacist cooperating with the patient and members of other health care professions 7. This interprofessional relationship allows the implementation, design and monitoring of a therapeutic plan that will have specific therapeutic outcomes for the patient to benefit from (Ford, Jones, 1995). Pharmacists are the last health care professionals to come in contact with the patients. They thus have a major role in educating them regarding drug use. For this reason, pharmacists must be adequately trained and have excellent communication skills in order to provide this service in an effective manner (Alkhawajah, 1992). Pharmaceutical care can therefore be seen as the component of pharmacy practice that has to be performed by a competent pharmacist who must be committed, honest, accountable and loyal to the patient (Strand et al, 1991). 1.4 The Health Care System in Malta Maltas health care system is divided into the public / national health care system and the private health care system in which pharmaceutical services are provided for by 211 pharmacies that are distributed around Malta and Gozo. The public / national health system is based on a model that is founded on the principles of Equity, Solidarity and Justice. 7 American Pharmacists Association. Principles of practice for pharmaceutical care. [homepage on the Internet]. 2005 [cited 2010 Oct 12]. Available from: https://www.caremark.com/portal/assset/Principles_of_Practice_for_Pharmaceutical_Care.pdf 1.4.1 The Public Health Care System The Maltese Government consists of different Ministries, one of these being the Ministry of Health, Elderly and Community Care. This deals with the healthcare needs of the people and ensures that adequate services are provided for 8. The main goals of the Government for the public health services include 9: The concern of the patient, which is a constant issue The provision of health care and its management The value for money The sustainability of public health care. The Maltese Medicines Authority controls and ensures the quality, safety and efficacy of the pharmaceuticals that are available locally. It also authorizes the medicines that are to be placed on the local market. The Government Health Procurement Services (GHPS) is responsible for the purchasing, storage and distribution of all the pharmaceuticals that are required by the Government Health Services (GHS) in Malta. This entity operates with the funds that are allocated annually by the Government. Procurement of pharmaceuticals is done via tendering procedures that are regulated by the Public Service (Procurement) and Public Contracts regulations. 8 Government of Malta. The health care system in Malta. [homepage on the Internet]. No date [cited 2010 Oct 25]. Available from: The Government of Malta, Web site: http://www.sahha.gov.mt/pages.aspx?page=156 9 Integrated health information system phase 2. [homepage on the Internet]. 2010 [cited 2010 Oct 24]. Available from: The Government of Malta, The Malta Information Technology Agency Web site: https://www.mita.gov.mt/TenderFile.aspx?tfid=727 1.4.1.1 Primary Health Care The Government delivers primary health care via the Health Centres that are distributed around various villages in Malta and Gozo. These centres were set up in 1980 in order to provide free health care services 9. Besides providing the free services of general practitioners, these centres also provide a vast range of other services, including: Specialist clinics eg: gynaecological clinics and diabetes clinics Laboratory diagnostic facilities Radiology. Many people choose to have the services of private general practitioners and / or specialists who work in the primary health care sector. In the private scenario, their services are against payment. 1.4.1.2 Secondary and Tertiary Health Care These are provided for by public and private hospitals, found in different locations in Malta. The main public hospital is Mater Dei Hospital and it provides a wide range of services, including transplant surgery, open heart surgery, emergency care and diagnostic services. Sir Paul Boffa Hospital, another public hospital, has an oncology and dermatology unit. Mount Carmel Hospital is the islands public psychiatric hospital. There are a number of private hospitals in Malta, amongst which is Saint James Capua Hospital. 9 Integrated health information system phase 2. [homepage on the Internet]. 2010 [cited 2010 Oct 24]. Available from: The Government of Malta, The Malta Information Technology Agency Web site: https://www.mita.gov.mt/TenderFile.aspx?tfid=727 1.5 Free health services provided by the government The Government provides free health services; free at the point of delivery, as these are directly funded from general taxation. In Malta, the boundary between the private and public sectors can be seen from two different aspects: medical and pharmaceutical (Wismayer, 2010). 1.5.1 The Medical Aspect The healthcare is available to ALL Maltese citizens, irrespective of the social and financial background of the patient. Anybody can turn up at a Health Centre or public hospital and be given the necessary treatment. Hence, up to a certain extent there is a holistic attitude as no distinction is made between citizens and whoever requires a healthcare service is provided with what is needed (Wismayer, 2010). The seams start to show up when the services available in the public health system are not accessible. That sector of society who can afford to pay, will therefore have to seek the services from the private sector. A case in point is the long waiting lists for certain required procedures at Mater Dei Hospital. 1.5.2 The Pharmaceutical Aspect One of the major tools to achieve good healthcare is to provide good pharmaceutical care. From this aspect, there is a clearer distinction between the private and public sectors. The Government offers free medications to a number of people who fall under different categories: The Schedule II Patients (Pink Card Holders) These cards are issued from the Department of Social Security. They are accompanied by a pink form which bears the name of the pink card holder. The total household income is assessed and the entitlement is based on this. Each household has one pink form that lists all members. However, every member of the household has his / her pink card. The pink form and pink card entitle their holders to free medication that is listed on the Government Formulary. Diabetics also have a pink card issued in their name. There are several faults in the administration of this system, as there does not seem to be a distinction between the strata of society, as is the case with some affluent people who are also in possession of a pink card. Also, no distinction is made between hospital in-patients and out-patients; there is only one formulary for all. 10. The Schedule V Patients (Yellow Card Holders) If a person suffers from a medical condition that is listed under the fifth schedule of the Social Security Act, then he / she can benefit from this free service, irrespective of the financial position. Examples of these conditions include: Respiratory conditions Cardiovascular diseases Malignant diseases Schizophrenia Liver diseases CNS diseases 10. 10 Ministry for Health, the Elderly and Community Care. Free medicinals. [homepage on the Internet]. No date [cited 2010 Oct 12]. Available from: The Government of Malta, Web site: http://www.sahha.gov.mt/pages.aspx?page=8 When a patient is diagnosed with such a condition, he / she is referred to a Consultant by the General Practitioner. The Consultant applies for a Schedule V Card for the patient listing the required medications. Subsequently, the patient is issued with the Card from the Almoner Section at St. Lukes Hospital. People who possess a yellow card are only entitled to take the medications that are listed on the card for free. The list must be amended if the treatment is changed. The Government Hospital In-Patients Any patient resident in the Government Hospitals is entitled to free medication. To date, there is only one Government formulary for all public hospitals. It would make more sense if each hospital had its own formulary due to the specialisation of the hospitals that varies accordingly. These formularies ought to be put together by the doctors who work at the hospitals and by the pharmacists who know what medications are available and which are best suited for the patients. Other people entitled to free medicines include amongst others: Members of certain religious orders Inmates of charitable institutions Refuse collection employees Prisoners People who are injured on duty Members of the Police Forces below the grade of Sub Inspector AFM personnel 11. 11 Ministry for Health, the Elderly and Community Care. Free medicinals. [homepage on the Internet]. No date [cited 2010 Oct 12]. Available from: The Government of Malta, Web site: http://www.sahha.gov.mt/pages.aspx?page=172 1.6 The Pharmacy of Your Choice Scheme The Pharmacy of your choice Scheme (POYC) falls under the umbrella of the Health Division in Malta. The latter is under the portfolio of the Ministry of Health, the Elderly and Community Care. POYC is under the direct responsibility of the Permanent Secretary of Health. The Scheme started in 2008 after several years of discussions and debates. It enables the people to have an easier and more comfortable access to the medicaments that they are entitled to take for free from the Government. The Scheme started in 2008 with an estimate budget of à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬460,000 and the actual expenditure for that year amounted to à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬366,000. In 2009, the estimate budget was of à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬400,000 and that for 2010 was of à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬1.5 million. The 2011 budget allocated à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬1 million to the Scheme apart from the additional à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬400,000 which had to be injected to strengthen the electronic system. The POYC pilot study started in December 2007 in two pharmacies in the Ghargur area. About 550 patients were registered in these pharmacies. Mgarr was next (one community pharmacy having approximately 600 patients), followed by Mellieha (three pharmacies having approximately 1500 pateints) in January 2008 and Naxxar in February 2008 ( Sant Fournier, 2008). Most community pharmacies enrolled in the POYC when the Scheme was introduced in their villages. For example, in the Mosta area, which includes Naxxar, St. Pauls Bay, Xemxija, Gharghur, Mgarr, Mellieha and Mosta, only one out of the 24 community pharmacies did not join in the Scheme due to lack of space (Zahra, 2007). With the introduction of the POYC Scheme, the village Health Centre Dispensaries were closed down after sufficient time had elapsed to allow for a seamless transition. 1.6.1 Advantages associated with the POYC Scheme The main scope of the POYC Scheme was to reduce the long queues at the Health Centre Government Dispensaries. Also, patients are monitored better by the community pharmacists who ensure that the medicines are taken in the correct way as more patient advice is given on a one-to-one basis when compared to the previous system (Zahra, 2007). Pharmacy practice in the community has always focussed on the establishment of an excellent patient-pharmacist relationship (Sant Fournier, 2007). This advice is lacking in the public sector as the patients are given the medicines they require with haste, due to the large number of people waiting to collect their medications. Dosage regimen advice is usually the only advice given. Many people used to turn to their community pharmacists anyway to seek advice and to solve any queries they may have had. With this Scheme, there is also a decrease in wastage because patients are not given the medicines if these are not required, despite the fact that they are entitled to them. Sant Fournier, the President of the Malta Chamber of Pharmacists, claimed that most patients have become more educated and as a result acknowledge the fact that medicines are not to be taken as a for granted privilege but must be used rationally (Borg, Bonello, 2009). The patients find it easier to confide in their habitual pharmacist rather than talk to someone who they do not know. 1.6.2 Problems associated with The POYC Scheme According to Mario Debono, the then General Retailers Trade Union (GRTU) Pharmacy and Health Division President, this system has been a success even though it would improve if more money is allocated by the Government and if it receives more attention (Borg, Bonello, 2009). As with any other recently introduced systems, there are flaws. Nevertheless, several efforts are being made to sort them out. The main problem that is associated with the POYC Scheme is the large number of medicines that are out of stock. This is causing unnecessary stress on the pharmacists and patients. The latter have to go to a Government Health Centre Dispensary that is still open or to Mater Dei Out-Patients Pharmacy to get the medications that are not available from the Scheme. However, this out of stock problem is not the fault of the POYC Department but it has got to do with the purchasing system of the Government. In October 2009, Debono stated that a possible reason why such a large number of medicines is out of stock is that some suppliers have not been paid for their services. Shortages of certain medicines abroad could also lead to decreased stock levels (Borg, Bonello, 2009). The Government did not organise any educational campaigns for the general public regarding the implementation of the POYC Scheme, even though it was advised to do so (Sant Fournier, 2009). Hence, pharmacists were faced with several problems, including sometimes, heated arguments with their patients. It was recommended to have the campaign based on the one used for the introduction of the Euro in Malta, the Malta Euro Changeover Campaign. In October 2009. Reginald Fava, the then President of the Malta Chamber of Commerce, Enterprise and Industry, made new proposals to upgrade the POYC system which were estimated to cut at least a third of present consumption and abuse. He described the current POYC system as being obscene because according to him medicines were being collected even when they were not required by the patients. Fava suggested that patients ought to pay for the medicines they require and will be reimbursed by the Government at a later stage. With this proposed system, the patients would also have the option to go for more advanced or more expensive medications as compared to their entitlement, and will only have to pay the difference in price. Hence, with this proposal, the POYC Scheme would be allowing superior medicines to be taken for free. It would also make the Scheme more sustainable as it would reduce the out of stock problem, be more cost-effective for the Government, reduce wastage and abuse. Th e Government would thus be saving on costs and would be in a better position to widen the National Formulary with more recent and advanced medications (Borg, 2009). At the moment, this is not possible due to financial constraints. The POYC Scheme affected the daily running of the community pharmacies. Due to the increased work load, some pharmacy owners had to employ further staff. The owners had to purchase a computer and a printer for labels to be issued with every dispensed prescription. They also had to apply for internet service at the pharmacy. Also, some pharmacies had to make the necessary arrangements to increase shelving space to accommodate the weekly delivery of medicines from the POYC Department. Some pharmacies even needed to install another air-conditioning unit. Admittedly, the Government subsidized these expenses to a maximum capital expenditure of à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬6,990 (Lm 3,000). After the Memorandum of Understanding was signed, negotiations were held and the amount was capped at à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬9,000. According to an article on the The Malta Business Weekly that was published in November 2009, only the pharmacists who own the pharmacy are happy with this new system. The employed pharmacists have had their work load doubled, if not trebled. Hence, they do not give their patients the service that they used to give before the implementation of the Scheme (Attard, 2009). 1.6.3 The Memorandum of Understanding The very first document on the POYC Scheme was submitted to the Government by the Malta Chamber of Pharmacis

Deserving to Die Essay -- Article Review, Robert Lee

Robert Lee makes many arguments to argue justification of capital punishment in his article, â€Å"Deserving to Die.† Some of the stronger ones involve the deterrent effect of the use of the death penalty, why the cost of execution is so high, and how the use of the death penalty increases overall public safety. In Lee’s first argument, he argues that the use of capital punishment helps reduce overall crime by acting as a deterrent to crime. In at least one respect, capital punishment is unquestionably a deterrent, as Lee puts it, â€Å"It simply cannot be contested that a killer, once executed, is forever deterred from killing again† (142). Of course, a deceased killer can never kill again, but the effect that death penalty has on others, potential future criminals, is the important question. Lee argues that whether or not it is a deterrent, relies on how swiftly and surely the death penalty is executed. The majority of people are afraid of dying, and if they co uld choose, would prefer not to die anytime soon. This proves how the death penalty can be a deterrent to other potential criminals to not kill someone, out of fear that they will be put to death themselves. There have also been some circumstances where actual statistical evidence proves the deterrent effect of capital punishment. In the time since the Utah Supreme Court ruled in 1976 that capital punishment be legalized again in the state, there have been three executions. After each of the executions, specifically the year after the executions took place, there were significant decreases in both the number and the rate of murders within the state, compared to previous year(s) (Lee 143). Lee himself does acknowledge that of course there are other variables that could have influence... ...bvious propositions—e.g., that a heavy ball will fall faster if dropped from the Leaning Tower of Pisa than a light one [would]—are actually false† (150). Freedman also lists some empirical statistics that further prove his point that it does not necessarily deter crime, including that, â€Å"Eighteen of the 20 states with the highest murder rates have and use the death penalty,† and that, â€Å"of the nation’s 20 big cities with the highest murder rates, 17 are in death penalty jurisdictions† (151). He also points out, among other statistics and claims, that, while this deterrent effect of capital punishment is â€Å"†¦perhaps the single most studied issue in the social science, The results are as unanimous as scholarly studies can be in finding the death penalty not to be a deterrent† (emphasis added) (151). These statistics mostly speak for themselves and are very surprising.

Essay --

Even though genetically modified organisms were created to grow more food there are negative aspects to these types of crops that are harmful to humans and animals. Therefore GMO’s should be studied more because there are positive impacts but harmful side effects. Genetically modified organisms is an organism whose genetic material has been changed using genetic engineering techniques. Organisms that have been genetically modified include microorganisms such as bacteria and yeast, insects, plants, fish, and mammals. GMO’s are the source of genetically modified foods, and are also widely used in scientific research and to produce goods other than food. Some negative impacts of GMO’s are the rise in autoimmune diseases, toxic effects, allergy risks, financial impacts, and cross pollination or contamination. The rise in autoimmune diseases, infertility, and chronic diseases may be associated with the introduction of genetically modified foods. The American academy of environmental medicine, consider the role of genetically modified foods in the nations health crisis, and advise their patients to avoid all genetically modified foods whenever possible. Genetically modified foods also share certain toxic effects on the liver, pancreas, kidneys, and reproductive system that may cause cancer in these organs. The widespread use of recombinant hormones-a genetically modified substance- in the agriculture industry is associated in IGF-1, a growth hormone that, in excess can lead to cancer. GMO foods have many allergy risks to people. Genetic modification often mixes or adds proteins that aren’t native to the original plant or animal, causing new allergic reactions in the body. Modifying plants genetically forms viruses, bacteria, and othe... ... indoors and the gardener controls the season. It is also a great way to spend wholesome, quality time with your family. In conclusion, there are many alternatives rather than using GMO. There may be many positive impacts of genetically modified foods but there are way more negative, harmful side effects and consequences when creating, eating, or using gmo foods. Gmo’s do not only affect the health of the human population but it also affects nature around us. Nature has it’s own natural cycle and genetically modified organisms diserupt the natural cycle. Killing one harmless species of insects may seem insignificant but it disrupts the food chain and animals or species that rely on them will die off and so will the rest up the food chain. Scientists should study more on the GMO’s so the negatives turn into positives so it doesn’t affect people as much or at all.

The Effects of Divorce on Children Essay -- Impact of Divorce on Child

Divorce is becoming a worldwide phenomenon, significantly affecting children’s well-being. It radically changes their future causing detrimental effects. According to (Julio CÃ ¡ceres-Delpiano and Eugenio Giolito, 2008) nearly 50% of marriages end with divorce. 90% of children who lived in the USA in the 1960s stayed with their own biological parents, whereas today it makes up only 40% (Hetherington, E. Mavis, and Margaret Stanley-Hagan, 1999). Such an unfavorable problem has been increasing, because in 1969, the legislation of California State changed the divorce laws, where spouses could leave without providing causes (Child Study Center, 2001). This resolution was accepted by the other states and later, the number of divorced people has been steadily growing. Such a typical situation is common for most countries in the world, which negatively affects children’s individuality. However, remarkably little amount of people can conceive the impact of marital separation c aused to offspring. (? passive) Many children after separation of parents are exposed to a number of changes in the future. They have to be getting used to a further living area, feelings and circumstances. Their response to divorce can vary and depends on age, gender and personal characteristics. This essay will show the effects of divorce on children under various aspects such as educational, psychological and social impact. In addition, it will contain data about the divorce rate in the US and present disparate reactions of children. It will also include adequate recommendations for parents as to how act to children after divorce, in order to minimize the adverse effect on children. Increasing divorce rate: During the 1960s and 1980s in the USA, there were signi... ...d become more successful. Works Cited Hetherington, E. Mavis, and Margaret Stanley-Hagan. "The Adjustment of Children with Divorced Parents: A Risk and Resiliency Perspective." Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry & Allied Disciplines 40, no. 1 (January 1999): 129. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost (accessed March 8, 2011). Sobolewski, Juliana M., and Paul R. Amato. 2007. "Parents' Discord and Divorce, Parent-Child Relationships and Subjective Well-Being in Early Adulthood: Is Feeling Close to Two Parents Always Better than Feeling Close to One?." Social Forces 85, no. 3: 1105-1124. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost (accessed March 8, 2011). Shansky, Janet. 2002. "NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF DIVORCE ON CHILD AND ADOLESCENT PSYCHOSOCIAL ADJUSTMENT." Journal of Pastoral Counseling 37, 73. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost (accessed March 8, 2011).

Independence Day Essay

â€Å"India is the cradle of the human race, the birthplace of human speech, the mother of history, the grandmother of legend, and the great grandmother of tradition. Our most valuable and most instructive materials in the history of man are treasured up in India only.† Honourable Chief Guest, teachers and all my dear friends. This day 15th August of every year is a golden day engraved in the history of the world. We won our freedom on this date and it is a day of celebration. As we celebrate it hoisting the flag, playing our National Anthem with fervor, singing and rejoicing, we need to recall the past to remember and pay homage to the builders of our nation. My dear friends, we are the privileged lot to have been born in a free India. We are able to breathe in a land that is free from the day we were born. If at all we want to know the pangs of agony of being slaves under a foreign rule, we must ask our elders born before 1947. It was indeed a Himalayan task for every Indian in those days to fight against those powerful giants – the British rulers. We must not allow those hard times and struggles fade away from our memory. Hence it is befitting for us to celebrate such a National festivals and recall those heroic deeds of our National heroes. We remember them today. Right from Mahatma Gandhi to the many patriotic leaders to whom we owe our gratitude. As we regard those martyrs who laid their precious lives for our sake, we must not ignore the common people who sacrificed their lot for the good cause. There were farmers, land lords, businessmen, teachers, writers, poets and students who helped the land achieve the long cherished dream of being free from foreign rule. Today we have travelled a long way in the path of free India. We have proved ourselves worthy of freedom. We are considered as the largest democracy in the world. How proud we were when Sushil Kumar won the silver medal in 2012 London Olympics or when The Indian Cricket Team lifted The ICC Champions Trophy? We are proud of it and feel very happy about all these positive aspects. But can we afford to be blind to the black clouds surrounding us? Let us question ourselves have we used our freedom in the right manner? If so, why should there be so many problems facing our motherland that threaten its existence? Be it terrorist attacks or the blight of corruption; these are the dangers that threaten us all. Well what can a mere student do at this juncture? Should we go catch the terrorists? Should we fight against the corrupted politicians? Or should we take over the country by waging another war for  freedom? No, we are not expected to do anything that brings turmoil to our land. We must keep observing things around us. We will have our own day. Before that, let us do our duty of preparing ourselves to be well-educated citizens of tomorrow. Let us do our duty sincerely and study hard to achieve a goal that is to be responsible citizens of India who believe in their country. Today we require youngsters with lot of energy. Illiteracy is our first enemy for a democratic nation. Let us get rid of illiteracy and become informed citizens who take India to a bright future. Jai Hind

An Introduction to Genre Theory Essay

An entrance demeanor to lit durationry musical virtuallyoneal manner possibleness Daniel Chandler 1. The problem of definition A amount of perennial doubts plague musical style guess. Are music music musical musical musical musical literary musical styles really out in that respect in the cosmos, or be they how perpetually the constructions of analysts? Is in that location a finite taxonomy of musical literary write styles or argon they in principle eternal? Are literary literary literary writing styles ageless Platonic essences or ephemeral, time-bound entities? Are writing styles culturebound or transcultural? Should musical style analysis be descriptive or proscriptive? (Stam 2000, 14) The word genre comes from the French (and superiorly Latin) word for patient of or syllabus.The term iswidely utilisationd in rhetoric, literary theory, media theory, and to a greater extent recently linguistics, to bear on to a distinctive type of school school textual matter edition edition*. Robert Allen n 1s that for most of its 2,000 years, genre study has been earlier nominological and typological in function. That is to say, it has sweep upn as its jumper lead t drive the percentage of the world of literary actions into types and the naming of those types such(prenominal) as the botanist divides the realm of flora into varieties of course of studyts (Allen 1989, 44). As leave behind be encountern, however, the analogy with biologic variety into genus and species misleadingly suggests a scientific sour.Since mere times literary work invite been classified as be to superior general types which were conglomerately delineate. In literature the broadest division is among poetry, prose and drama, in state of wardly which there atomic number 18 save divisions, such(prenominal)(prenominal) as catastrophe and comedy at he artisanic production the category of drama. Shakespeargon elevatered satirically to mixtures such as catastrophe, comedy, history, pastoral, pastoral-comical, historical-pastoral, tragical-historical, tragical-comicalhistorical-pastoral (Hamlet II ii).In The Anatomy of Criticism the forma disceptation literary theorizer Northrop Frye (1957) presented original universal genres and modesas the come upon to organizing the entire literary corpus. modern media genres fly the coop to strike to a greater extent to specific forms than to the universals of tragedy and comedy. Nowadays, motion pictures argon routinely classified (e. g. in idiot box listings magazines) as thrillers, westerns and so on genres with which every adult in innovational society is known.So besides with television genres such as game shows and sitcoms. Whilst we pay back names for countless genres in umpteen media, well-nigh idealogues encounter argued that there atomic number 18 in every case legion(predicate) genres (and sub-genres) for which we stick no names (Fowler 198 9, 216 Wales 1989, 206). Carolyn Millersuggests that the number of genres in both society depends on the complexity and multifariousness of society (Miller 1984, in freedwoman & Medway 1994a, 36).The classification and hierarchical taxonomy of genres is non a neutral and objective procedure. thither atomic number 18 no undis targeted maps of the system of genres indoors either(prenominal)(prenominal) strong point (though literature whitethorn peradventure lay many agreeuce to a loose consensus). Further much, there is applicatoryly librateable sup inclineal disagreement round the definition of specific genres. A genre is ultimately an abstract conception kinda than something that comprises existentially in the world, nones Jane Feuer (1992, 144). One theorists genre may be anothers sub-genre or tear down super-genre (and indeed what is technique, style, mode, formula or thematic grouping to 1 may be treated as a genre by another).Themes, at least, take in m s posteriort(p) as a basis for formation genres since, as David Bordwell notes, any theme may appear in any genre (Bordwell 1989, 147). He asks Are animation and infotainment films genres or modes? Is the filmed play or comedy performance a genre? If tragedy and comedy argon genres, perchance then domestic tragedy or slapstick is a formula. Inpassing, he offers a useful stocktaking of categories utilise in film criticism, numerous an(prenominal) of which do been accorded the status of genres by various commentatorsGrouping by period or country (Ameri smoke films of the 1930s), by director or star or let outr or writer or studio, by practiced military operation (Cinemascope films), by cycle (the locomote women films), by series (the 007 movies), by style (German Expressionism), by structure (narrative), by political theory (Reaganite cinema), by venue (drive-in movies), by purpose (home movies), by audience (teenpix), by subject or theme (family film, paranoid-politi cs movies).(Bordwell 1989, 148) another(prenominal) film theorist, Robert Stam, overly refers to common shipway of categorizing films While some genres atomic number 18 base on story content (the war film), other are borrowed from literature (comedy, melodrama) or from other media (the musical). near are performer- base (the Astaire-Rogers films) or budget- grant (blockbusters), while others are based on artistic status (the art film), racial identity (Black cinema), location (the Western) or sexual druthers (Queer cinema).(Stam 2000, 14). Bordwell concludes that wizard could argue that no doctor of incumbent and sufficient conditions peck crisscross off genres from other sorts of groupings in slipway that all experts or ordinary film-goers would mystify An Introduction to musical style Theory satisfying (Bordwell 1989, 147). Practitioners and the general public crystallize use of their own genre labels (de blushto genres) quite by from those of academic theorists . We might therefore ask ourselves Whose genre is it anyway? Still further problems with definitional approaches go away become unmistakable in due course. formation genres may not initially regardm tokenly rugged still it should already be apparent that it is a theoretical minefield.Robert Stam identifies four advert problems with generic labels (in sexual congress to film) extension (the breadth or narrowness of labels) normativism (having preconceived ideas of criteria for genre membership) monolithic definitions (as if an item belonged to only one genre) biologism (a kind of immanentism in which genres are chinkn as evolving through and through a standardised sprightliness cycle) (Stam 2000, 128129). Conventional definitions of genres melt down to be based on the ruling that they mention concomitant conventions of content (such as themes or constitutetings) and/or form (including structure and style) whichare divided by the texts which are regarded as belongi ng to them.Alternative characterizations will be discussed in due course. The attempt to define withalt genres in monetary value of necessary and sufficient textual properties is sometimes seen as theoretically attractive but it poses many an(prenominal) herculeanies. For instance, in the case of films, some have the appearance _or_ semblance to be aligned with one genre in content and another genre in form. The film theorist Robert Stam argues that subject return is the weakest criterion for generic grouping because it fails to take into account how the subject is treated (Stam 2000, 14). Outlining a fundamental problem ofgenre naming in congeneric to films, Andrew Tudor notes the empiricist plightTo take a genre such as the western, analyze it, and list its trail distinctions, is to beg the suspicion that we must(prenominal) first isolate the body of films which are westerns. But they drop only be isolated on the basis of the principal characteristics which can only be observed from the films themselves afterward they have been isolated. (Cited in Gledhill 1985, 59) It is rarely profound to find texts which are exceptions to any addicted definition of a contingent genre. There are no found rules of inclusion and exclusion (Gledhill 1985, 60).Genres are not discrete systems, consisting of a fixed number of listable items (ibid. , 64). It is unwieldy to make clear-cut distinctions surrounded by one genre and another genres overlap, and there are mixed genres (such as comedy-thrillers). 2 Specific genres flow to be balmy to substantiate intuitively but difficult (if not impossible) to define. Particular gives which are characteristic of a genre are not normally unique to it it is their relative prominence, combine and functions which are distinctive (Neale 1980, 22-3). It is easy to playact the disaccordences deep down a genre.Steve Neale declaresthat genres are instances of repetition and difference (Neale 1980, 48). He adds that difference is abruptly essential to the economy of genre (ibid. , 50) mere repetition would not attract an audience. Tzvetan Todorov argued that any instance of a genre will be necessarily diametric (cited in Gledhill 1985, 60). tooshie Hartley notes that the addendum of just one film to the Western genre diversenesss that genre as a wholly blush though the Western in unbelief may display few of the recognise conventions, styles or subject fields impostally associated with its genre (OSullivan et al. 1994).The know of difference alsohighlights the fact that some genres are looser more open-ended in their conventions or more pervious in their boundaries than others. Texts a lot exhibit the conventions of more than one genre. bath Hartley notes that the same text can belong to contrasting genres in different countries or times (OSullivan et al. 1994, 129). mark genres abound (at least outside theoretical formworks). Van Leeuwen suggests that the multiple purp oses of journalism ofttimes lead to generically heterogeneous texts (cited in Fairclough 1995, 88). Norman Fairclough suggests that mixed-genre texts are far from ludicrous in the can media (Fairclough 1995, 89).Some media may encourage more generic diversity Nicholas Abercrombie notes that since television comes at the audience as a flow of programmes, all with different generic conventions, heart and soul that it is more difficult to sustain the purity of the genre in the resumeing experience (Abercrombie 1996, 45 his accent mark). Furthermore, in any medium the generic classification of authorized texts may be indistinct or subject to dispute. Contemporary theorists tend to describe genres in damage of family similes among texts (a notion derived from the philosopher Wittgenstein) rather than definitionally (Swales 1990, 49).An item-by-item text inside a genre rarely if ever has all of the characteristic features of the genre (Fowler 1989, 215). The family resemblance ap proaches involves the theorist illustrating similarities between some of the texts within a genre. However, the family resemblance approach has been criticized on the basis that no choice of a text for illustrative purposes is innocent (David Lodge, cited in Swales 1990, 50), and that such theories can make any text seem to resemble any other one (Swales 1990, 51).In addition to the definitional and family resemblance approach, there isAn Introduction to Genre Theory another approach to describing genres which is based on the psycholinguistic concept of prototypicity. gibe to this approach, some texts would be widely regarded as beingnessness more representative members of a genre than others.According to this approach certain features would signalize the extent to which an exemplar is prototypical of a fact genre (Swales 1990, 52). Genres can therefore be seen as groggy categories which cannot be defined by necessary and sufficient conditions. How we define a genre depends on our purposesthe adequacy of our definition in terms of affectionate science at least must surely be related to the light that the exploration sheds on the phenomenon.For instance (and this is a key fill of mine), if we are studying the way in which genre frames the refs exposition of a text then we would do well to management on how referees identify genres rather than on theoretical distinctions.Defining genres may be problematic, but stock-still if theorists were to abandon the concept, in terrestrial breeding people would continue to categorise texts. jakes Swales does note that a discourse participations nomenclature for genres is animportant spring of insight (Swales 1990, 54), though similar many academic theorists he ulterior adds that such genre names typically affect further validation (ibid. , 58).Some genre names would be likely to be more widely- employ than others it would be interesting to check up on the areas of touristy consensus and dissensus i n relation to the everyday labeling of stack media genres. For Robert Hodge and Gunther Kress, genres only exist in so far as a amicable group declares and enforces the rules that constitute them (Hodge & Kress 1988, 7), though it is debatable towhat extent most of us would be able to formulate definite rules for the textual genres we use routinely much of our genre knowledge is likely to be tacit.In relation to film, Andrew Tudor argued that genre is what we collectively believe it to be (though this begs the question astir(predicate) who we are). Robert Allen comments wryly that Tudor even hints that in order to establish what audiences command a western to be like we might have to ask them (Allen 1989, 47). Swales also alludes to people having repertoires of genres (Swales 1990, 58), which I would argue would also be likely to repayinvestigation. However, as David Buckingham notes, there has hardly been any empirical research on the ways in which real audiences might underst and genre, or use this understanding in qualification comprehend of specific texts (Buckingham 1993, 137).Steve Neale stresses that genres are not systems they are processes of systematization (Neale 1980, 51 my idiom cf. Neale 1995, 463). Traditionally, genres (particularly literary genres) tended to be regarded 3 as fixed forms, but present-day(a) theory emphasizes that both their forms and functions are dynamic. David Buckingham argues that genre is notsimply given(p) by the culture rather, it is in a unbroken process of negotiation and change (Buckingham 1993, 137). Nicholas Abercrombie suggests that the boundaries between genres are shifting and becoming more permeable (Abercrombie 1996, 45) Abercrombie is implicated with young television, which he suggests seems to be engaged in a steady dismantling of genre (ibid. ) which can be attributed in part to frugal pressures to pursue refreshful audiences. One may acknowledge the dynamic fluidity of genres without positing the nett demise of genre as an constituteative framework.As the generic corpus interminably expands, genres (and the kinds between them) change over time the conventions of each genre shift, new genres and sub-genres bulge out and others are discontinued (though note that certain genres seem particularly long-lasting). Tzvetan Todorov argued that a new genre is always the transformation of one or several old genres (cited in Swales 1990, 36). Each new work within a genre has the potential to go changes within the genre or perhaps the emergence of new sub-genres (which may later blossom into fully-fledged genres).However, such a sentiment tends to highlight the role of authorial experimentation in changing genres and their conventions, whereas it is important to recognize not only the affectionate personality of text return but oddly the role of frugal and technological factors as well as changing audience preferences. The interaction between genres and media can be se en as one of the forces which contributes to changing genres. Some genres are more powerful than others they differ in the status which is attributed to them by those who produce texts within them and by their audiences. As Tony Thwaites et al.put it, in the interaction and conflicts among genres we can see the connections between textuality and power (Thwaites et al. 1994, 104). The key genres in institutions which are first definers (such as discussion reports in the mass media) divine service to establish the frameworks within which issues are defined. But genre hierarchies also shift over time, with respective(prenominal) genres constantly gaining and losing different groups of users and relative status. idealist theoretical approaches to genre which seek to categorize ideal types in terms of essential textual characteristics are ahistorical.As a result oftheir dynamic nature as processes, Neale argues that definitions of genre are always historically relative, and therefor e historically specific (Neale 1995, 464). Similarly, Boris Tomashevsky insists that no firm logical classification of genres is possible. Their de- An Introduction to Genre Theory marcation is always historical, that is to say, it is castigate only for a specific bit of history (cited in Bordwell 1989, 147). Some genres are defined only retrospectively, being unacknowledged as such by the original manufacturers and audiences. Genres need to be studied as historical phenomena a habitual reduce infilm studies, for instance, has been the evolution of conventions within a genre.Current genres go through phases or cycles of popularity (such as the cycle of accident films in the 1970s), sometimes becoming sleeping for a period rather than disappearing. On-going genres and their conventions themselves change over time. Reviewing evolutionary change in some popular film genres, Andrew Tudor concludes that it has three main characteristics First, in that innovations are added to an existent corpus rather than replace redundant elements, it is cumulative. Second, in thatthese innovations must be basically consistent with what is already present, it is blimpish.Third, in that these processes lead to the crystallization of specialist sub-genres, it involves differentiation. (Tudor 1974, 225-6) Tudor himself is cautious about adopting the biological analogy of evolution, with its implication that only those genres which are well-adapted to their functions survive. Christine Gledhill also notes the danger of essentialism in selecting unambiguous classic examples towards which earlier examples evolve and after which others decline (Gledhill 1985, 59).The cycles and transformations of genres can nevertheless be seen as a result to political, social and economic conditions. Referring to film, Andrew Tudor notes that a genre defines a clean and social world (Tudor 1974, 180). Indeed, a genre in any medium can be seen as embodying certain values and ideological assumptions. over again in the context of the cinema Susan Hayward argues that genre conventions change tally to the ideological modality of the time, contrasting John Wayne westerns with Clint Eastwood as the problematic hero or anti-hero (Hayward 1996, 50).king of beasts Baudry (cited in Hayward 1996, 162) sees film genres as a barometer of the social and cultural concerns of cinema audiences Robert Lichter et al. (1991) enlarge how televisual genres glint the values of the programme-makers. Some commentators see mass media genres from a particular era as reflecting values which were dominant at the time. Ira Konigsberg, for instance, suggests that texts within genres embody the moral values of a culture (Konigsberg 1987, 144-5). And John Fiske asserts that generic conventions embody the crucial ideological concerns of the time in which they are popular4 (Fiske 1987, 110). However, Steve Neale stresses that genres may also suffice to shape such values (Neale 1980, 16). Thwai tes et al. see the relationship as reciprocal a genre develops according to social conditions transformations in genre and texts can influence and fortify social conditions (Thwaites et al. 1994, 100). Some Marxist commentators see genre as an instrument of social check off which reproduces the dominant ideology. Within this perspective, the genre positions the audience in order to naturalise the ideologies which are embedded in the text (Feuer 1992, 145).Bernadette Casey comments that recently, structuralists and feminist theorists, among others, have focused on the way in which generically defined structures may operate to construct particular ideologies and values, and to encourage reassuring and conservative interpretations of a given text (Casey 193, 312). However, reader-oriented commentators have express that people are capable of tuition against the grain.Thomas and Vivian Sobchack note that in the past popular film-makers, intent on telling a story, were not always awa re of the covert mental and socialsubtext of their own films, but add that modern film-makers and their audiences are now more keenly aware of the myth- devising obtained by film genres (Sobchack & Sobchack 1980, 245).Genre can reflect a function which in relation to television Horace Newcombe and Paul Hirsch referred to as a cultural forum, in which exertion and audience negotiate shared beliefs and values, service of process to maintain the social order and assisting it in adapting to change (Feuer 1992, 145). Certainly, genres are far from being ideologically neutral.Sonia Livingstone argues, indeed, that different genres are concerned to establish different world views (Livingstone 1990, 155). tie in to the ideological dimension of genres is one modern redefinition in terms of purposes. In relation to writing, Carolyn Miller argues that a rhetorically punishing definition of genre must be centered not on the nub or form of discourse but on the action it is used to accompl ish (Carolyn Miller 1984, in Freedman & Medway 1994a, 24). following this lead, John Swales declares that the principal criterial feature that turns a collection of communicativeevents into a genre is some shared personate of communicative purposes (Swales 1990, 46).In relation to the mass media it can be reproductive to consider in relation to genre the purposes not only of the producers of texts but also of those who interpret them (which need not be fictitious always to match). A consensus about the primary purposes of some genres (such as news bulletins) and of their readers is in all probability easier to establish than in relation to others (such as westerns), where the very term purpose strongs too in- An Introduction to Genre Theory strumental.However, uses and gratifications researchers have already conducted investigations into the various functions that the mass media seem to serve for people, and ethnographic studies have offered fruitful insights into this dimens ion. Miller argues that both in writing and reading within genres we learn purposes suppress to the genre in relation to the mass media it could be argued that particular genres develop, frame and legitimize particular concerns, questions and pleasures.Related redefinitions of genre focus more broadly on the relationship between the makers and audiencesof texts (a rhetorical dimension). To varying extents, the ballock features of genres establish the relationship between producers and interpreters. Indeed, in relation to mass media texts Andrew Tolson redefines genre as a category which mediates between pains and audience (Tolson 1996, 92).Note that such approaches overthrow the definition of genres as purely textual types, which excludes any reference even to think audiences. A basic model railroad cardinal contemporary media theory is a angulate relationship between the text, its producers and its interpreters.From the perspective of many recent commentators, genres first and foremost yield frameworks within which texts are produced and interpreted. Semiotically, a genre can be seen as a shared code between the producers and interpreters of texts include within it. Alastair Fowler goes so far as to suggest that communication is impossible without the hold codes of genre (Fowler 1989, 216). Within genres, texts embody authorial attempts to position readers using particular modes of contend. Gunther Kress observes thatEvery genre positions those who participate ina text of that kind as interviewer or interviewee, as listener or storyteller, as a reader or a writer, as a person interested in political matters, as someone to be instructed or as someone who instructs each of these positionings implies different possibilities for response and for action. Each written text provides a reading position for readers, a position constructed by the writer for the ideal reader of the text. (Kress 1988, 107) Thus, embedded within texts are assumptions about the ideal reader, including their attitudes towards the subject matter and often their class, age, gender and ethnicity.Gunther Kress defines a genre as a kind of text that derives its form from the structure of a (frequently repeated) social occasion, with its characteristic participants and their purposes (Kress 1988, 183). An interpretative emphasis on genre as opposed 5 to individual texts can help to prompt us of the social nature of the production and interpretation of texts. In relation to film, many modern commentators refer to the commercial and industrial significance of genres.Denis McQuail argues that The genre may be considered as a practical pull for helping any mass medium to produce consistently and efficiently and to relate its production to the expectations of its customers. Since it is also a practical device for enabling individual media users to plan their choices, it can be considered as a mechanism for ordering the relations between the two main parties to mass communication. (McQuail 1987, 200)Steve Neale observes that genres exist within the context of a set of economic relations and practices, though he adds that genres are not the product of economic factors as such.The conditions provided by the capitalist economy account neither for the existence of the particular genres that have hitherto been produced, nor for the existence of the conventions that constitute them (Neale 1980, 51-2). Economic factors may account for the continuation of a profitable genre. Nicholas Abercrombie notes that television producers set out to exploit genre conventions It makes sound economic sense impression. Sets, properties and costumes can be used over and over again. Teams of stars, writers, directors and technicians can be built up, giving economies of scale (Abercrombie 1996, 43).He adds that genres permit the creation and maintenance of a loyal audience which becomes used to sightedness programmes within a genre (ibid. ). Genres can be seen as a w ay of life of controlling demand (Neale 1980, 55). The relative stableness of genres enables producers to predict audience expectations. Christine Gledhill notes that differences between genres meant different audiences could be identified and catered to This made it easier to standardize and stabilise production (Gledhill 1985, 58). In relation to the mass media, genre is part of the process of targeting different market sectors.Traditionally, literary and film critics in particular have regarded generic texts (by which they mean formulaic texts) as insufficient to those which they contend are produced outside a generic framework. Indeed, film theorists frequently refer to popular films as genre films in contrast to non-formula films. Elitist critics reject the generic fable of the mass media because they are commercial products of popular culture rather than high art. Many harbor the Romantic ideology of the primacy of authorial originality and vision, emphasizing individual styl eand artistic self-expression.In this tradition the An Introduction to Genre Theory artist (in any medium) is seen as breaking the range of convention. For the Italian aesthetician Benedetto Croce (1866-1952), an artistic work was always unique and there could be no artistic genres. More recently, some literary and film theorists have accorded more importance to genre, counteracting the ideology of authorial primacy (or auteurism, as it is known in relation to the emphasis on the director in film). Contemporary theorists tend to emphasize the importance of the semiotical notion of intertextualityof seeing individual texts in relation to others. Katie Wales notes that genre is an intertextual concept (Wales 1989, 259). John Hartley suggests that we need to understand genre as a property of the relations between texts (OSullivan et al. 1994, 128). And as Tony Thwaites et al. put it, each text is influenced by the generic rules in the way it is put together the generic rules are reinf orced by each text (Thwaites et al. 1994, 100).Roland Barthes (1975) argued that it is in relation to other texts within a genre rather than in relation to lived experience that we make sense of certainevents within a text. There are analogies here with schema theory in psychology, which proposes that we have mental scripts which help us to interpret 6 familiar events in everyday life. John Fiske offers this tangency exampleA representation of a car chase only makes sense in relation to all the others we have seen after all, we are unlikely to have experienced one in reality, and if we did, we would, according to this model, make sense of it by turning it into another text, which we would also understand intertextually, in terms of what we have seen so often on our screens.There is then a cultural knowledge of the concept car chase that any one text is a prospectus for, and that it used by the viewer to decode it, and by the producer to encode it. (Fiske 1987, 115) In contrast to those of a traditionalist literary bent who tend to present artistic texts as nongeneric, it could be argued that it is impossible to produce texts which bear no relationship whatsoever to established genres. Indeed, Jacques Derrida proposed that a text cannot belong to no genre, it cannot be without a genre.Every text participates in one or several genres, there is no genre-less text(Derrida 1981, 61). Note *In these notes, words such as text, reader and writer are sometimes used as general terms relating to texts (and so on) in whatever medium is being discussed no privileging of the written word (graphocentrism) is intended. Whilst it is hard to find an alternative for the word texts, terms such as makers and interpreters are sometimes used here as terms non-specific to particular media instead of the terms writers and readers.2. running(a) within genres John Hartley argues that genres are agents of ideological closure they limit the meaning-potentialof a given text (OSullivan et al. 1994, 128). Robert Hodge and Gunther Kress define genres as typical forms of texts which link kinds of producer, consumer, topic, medium, manner and occasion, adding that they control the behavior of producers of such texts, and the expectations of potential consumers (Hodge & Kress 1988, 7). Genres can be seen as constituting a kind of tacit contract between authors and readers. From the traditional Romantic perspective, genres are seen as confine and inhibiting authorial creativity.However, contemporary theorists, evenwithin literary studies, typically reject this view (e. g. Fowler 1982 31). Gledhill notes that one perspective on this issue is that some of those who write within a genre work in original tension with the conventions, attempting a personal metrics of them (Gledhill 1985 63). From the point of view of the producers of texts within a genre, an advantage of genres is that they can rely on readers already having knowledge and expectations about works within a genre.Fowler comments that the system of generic expectations amounts to a code, by the use of which(or by departure from which) composition becomes more efficient (Fowler 1989 215). Genres can thus be seen as a kind of shorthand helping to increase the efficiency of communication. They may even function as a means of preventing a text from dissolving into identity and incomprehensibility (Gledhill 1985 63). And whilst writing within a genre involves making use of certain given conventions, every work within a genre also involves the invention of some new elements.An Introduction to Genre Theory As for reading within genres, some argue that knowledge of genre conventions leads to inactiveconsumption of generic texts others argue that making sense of texts within genres is an active process of constructing meaning (Knight 1994). Genre provides an important frame of reference which helps readers to identify, select and interpret texts.Indeed, in relation to advertisements, Varda Langholz Leymore argues that the sense which viewers make of any single text depends on how it relates to the genre as a whole (Langholz Leymore 1975, ix). Key psychological functions of genre are likely to include those shared by categorization generally such as reducing complexity.